GRAPHIC METTOS I^RESENTiNG FACTS |fc ■"■ v.; •■• .y - . " j; ^n,i;' ,; ■; , ; ,;:,.„;.: ,;., •:: ■ --^ ■ : t ■%ILLARD C. BRINTON 3^5 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Menrg M. Sage Ft.^.'-i.joi'i , imM WiAVl SJS44 OCT 4 1950 *^to_: f ■> Jfltu ^ioson?^ c u Cornell University Library HA31 .B85 + Graphic methods for presentin< facts, 3 1924 032 62…

PREFACE IN the preparation of this book there has been a constant effort to present the subject to suit the point of view of the business man, the social worker, and the legislator. Mathematics have been entirely eliminated. Technical terms are used practically not at all. Since the readers whom it is most desired to reach are those who have never had any statistical training, consistent effo…

The executive who desires a chart is usually too busy to stand by a draftsman and explain in detail just how the chart should be prepared as concerns those all important details of proportion, scale, width of line, etc. It is believed that the owner of this book wiU find it feasible to run through the various chapters and pages until he finds a chart most nearly like that which he desires to h…

The sub-titles relate to method and give criticism of each chart as a whole. Though the text gives much more detailed information concerning method than can possibly be put into any sub-titles, the reader who examines only the illustrations and the titles, without any reference to the text, will undoubtedly get a major portion of the vital material in the book. It is believed that an average r…

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers has invited about fifteen of the chief American societies of national scope to co-operate by sending one member each to a Joint Committee on Standards for Graphic Presentation. Though this committee is not yet completely organized, and it will be some time before any report is available, the reader who desires further information regarding standard …

Palin Elderton and Ethel M. Elderton, Adam and Charles Black, London; "Statistical Averages," by Franz Zizek, Henry Holt and Company, New York; "Statistical Methods with Special Reference to Biological Variation," by C. B. Davenport, John Wiley and Sons, New York. Any list of this sort is, of course, incomplete and these books are mentioned as only a few of those which may be found useful to …

Curtis Prout, and Miss Katherine Tyng, for valuable assistance and suggestions received during the preparation of this book. Chapter XV is largely based on an article prepared at the PREFACE Vll suggestion of the author by Mr. Pierpont V. Davis of New York City and pubUshed by Mr. Davis in Moody's Magazine. I wish also to express my thanks to numerous friends who have given excellent suggesti…

CONTENTS PAGE Chapter I. Component Parts 1 The need for graphic methods in presenting facts. The method of presentation as important as the data. PossibiKty for standard methods of presentation. Tabulated figures versus graphic methods. A total shown with its component parts. The horizontal bar. The circle and sectors. Subdivision of components. Separate bars totalling 100 per cent. Charts g…

Time Charts 53 Horizontal bars drawn to a scale of time. Complex time charts by which the relations of numerous horizontal bars may be studied. Time charts showing bars combined with a curve expressing totals. Curves to study whether time schedules are maintained. Rank charts to portray the rank of different individuals at various times. Rank charts showing actual relative rank at any time an…

The zero of the vertical scale should be shown on the chart. Advantages of plotting curves for different years one above the other for comparison. Contrast in shape of curves plotted in separate fields. Advantage from shading the space under a curve. Numerous dissimilar but related curves on the same sheet. Errors resulting if curves not having the same zero line are compared. A total curve p…

A contrasting method of showing all curves plotted separately but from the same zero line. Universal co-ordinate paper for convenience in curve plotting. Total curves with component areas so that any point on a curve totals 100 per cent for the height of the areas beneath. Chapter IX. Cumulative or Mass Curves 149 Factory production schedules and actual outputs plotted on a cumulative basis.…

Studies of the percentage of clerical work and percentage of revenue from orders of various sizes. Pin boards to record costs of doing work on orders of different size. Theoretical curves for percentage of clerical work and percentage of revenue from orders of different size. The Lorenz curve. Correlation curves. "Shotgun" diagrams. Plotting curves to represent numerous points. Shaded areas t…

Curves for the Executive 254 Peak-top curves versus flat tops. Methods for combining curves with figure^ recording the data. Cards for plotting curves for operating records. Advantages of the card method for instantaneous comparison of different curves. Typical operating curves for a manufacturing business. Typical records for a selling organization. Arrangement of the card system for extensio…

The annual report of corporations not usually put in form to permit intelligent comparison by the stockholders. Records of previous years not usually given. The number of stockholders constantly increasing. Best policy is to give complete and clear information. Recent examples showing bad practice. Curves for the United States Steel Corporation as a suggestion for the type of chart to be inclu…

Errors resulting in interpretation of curves if the zero of the vertical scale is not shown on the chart. The selection of scales for curve plotting. Different impressions from curves from the same data but with various scales. Optical illusions which may afl^ect graphic work. A checking list for final inspection of graphic presentations. Need for standard rules of grammar for the graphic la…

Time after time it happens that some ignorant or presumptuous member of a committee or a board of directors will upset the carefully -thoughtout plan of a man who knows the facts, simply because the man with the facts cannot present his facts readily enough to overcome the opposition. It is often with impotent exasperation that a person having the knowledge sees some fallacious conclusion acc…

In many of these cases the attitude of the person presenting the matter seems to be that the facts will speak for themselves and that they need little or no assistance. Ordinarily, facts do not speak for themselves. "When they do speak for themselves, the wrong conclusions are often drawn from them. Unless the facts are presented in a clear and interesting manner, they are about as effective a…

In many cases, the graphic method requires less space than is required for words and there is, besides, the great advantage that with graphic methods facts are presented so that the reader may make deductions of his own, while when words are used the reader must usually accept the ready-made conclusions handed to him. In many presentations it is not a question of saving time to the reader b…

The work of kindergarten nature now done in the lower grades of the public schools could very readily be extended so that the pupils would be making charts and curves without realizing that the work (or play) had any relation to mathematics. Text-books for geography are already making effective use of charts. In the public schools of Newark and of Trenton, New Jersey, grammar-school pupils ar…

Yet we all try to follow the rules in spite of their intricacies. The principles for a grammar of graphic presentation are so simple that a remarkably small number of rules would be sufficient to give a universal language. It is interesting to note, also, that there are possibilities of the graphic presentation becoming an international language, like music, which is now written by such stand…

Percentage op Each Race in the Population of the World Yellow 45 White 41 Black 11 Brown 2 Red 1 It requires mental concentration in interpreting even these simple figures to get the correct impression of the very large percentage of the two chief races and the numerical insignificance of the one last named. If these data were shown in a simple horizontal bar, somewhat like that seen in …

The horizontal bar need be made only wide enough to show the various kinds of shading necessary to give a good contrast. Engineering dimension lines above each block in the bar are of great advantage 50% for convenient reading. The dimension lines permit of group- y<^rVh--''- ^'^<>';"--^-i'>'v-^;v /-^i^'^VivSo:^'^ ing in such a manner /'*^^•••X^";^^^'^;:i•>^i^^f^•^ that several of the deta…

It would be desirable to have a large number of the illustrations in this book printed in color. Charts which are made in color can readily bring out points which are not easily portrayed when only black ink is used. The reader should keep in mind for his own work that he should use colors in making those charts where colors are economically possible. For the purpose of this book, color printi…

under the same conditions that would be found in the preparation of material for magazine articles, printed reports, and ordinary prospectus or other advertising matter. Fig. 2 is a form of chart used probably more widely than any other form to show component parts. The circle with sectors is not a desirable form of presentation, however, because it does not have nearly such flexibilit…

The horizontal-bar method permits of placing figures so as to keep the decimal points in line, thus making it possible to add the whole column of figures relating to the various components. The sector method is probably so widely known through presentation in exhibits, illustrations for popular magazines, etc., that it is more generally understood than any other niethod now in use. The more …

On the left the scale is given in millions of tons, and on the right in millions of dollars. The reader can interpret the chart from whichever standpoint he prefers. Though this chart is arranged vertically instead of horizontally, it really makes little difference which way the bars are placed. As a general thing, the horizontal arrangement lends itself more readily to the use of type so …

Utilization and Accompanying Wastes of One Year's Coal Supply for Locomotives on Railroads of the United States The double scale permits reading this chart in tons or in dollars If the chart is made on co-ordinate paper with ruled squares, the reader can obtain the size of each component direct from the co-ordinate lines. The trouble, however, with using co-ordinate paper for charts of th…

Each of these main-group bars is crosshatched to show the conjugal condition within the group. The combined length of the four bottom bars is equal to the length of the total-population bar shown at the top. These same data could have been presented by the method shown in Fig. 5. It will be noted, however, that in Fig. 6 all the figures have been included, and are available for reference …

I I I I i=f Scale fo inch equals 5 perceni United Slates Statistical Atlas for the Census of 1900 Fig. 5. Elements of the Population of the United States in 1900 Here the components of the total population are shown in their relative sizes on the vertical scale. Each component is also divided into different subdivisions whose percentage size may be read from the horizontal scale. This is …

It is not easy to make a clear blackand-white drawing if one kind of cross-hatching must be placed on top of another kind. Fig. 7 shows that it is possible, however, to superimpose two kinds of cross-hatching and get a drawing that is fairly clear. The facts in this chart would have been brought out better if colors had been used for the main divisions of population. Ruled cross-hatching in bl…

The method of Fig. 5 could be used for these data, but would not be as easy to understand as the method of Fie 8 Fig. 5 would require most careful cross-hatching to bring out the vertical subdivisions for each of the different States. By using the method of Fig. 8, each State can be shown distinctly even if it is only the width of a line, as in the case of Nevada or Wyoming. The wide spa…

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This is an admirable piece of presentation even though the lettering and drafting are not Cjuite as good as they might have been if more care had been used, though probably allowance must be a) Character o( work; , Size aod type of truck Nature of ioads Number of cars.r Distance per day Number of stoos per day- DayB In Bervlce ;b) Roads and climate: Road surface Grades Other stre…

We have here the total cost of motor trucking, studied according to the components of the cost and also according to the conditions which produce those component costs. We may consider either the service conditions or the cost components. We have 100 per cent in the horizontal direction and 100 per cent also in the vertical direction. The total of the components in either direction is 100 per…

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In Fig. 10, however, we have fuel cost subdivided as many as five different times. Though the method of Fig. 10 could easily be used for the data of Fig. 9, that of Fig. 9 has its advantages in that it makes printing cheaper and is therefore desirable whenever it can be used. Fig. 9 can be prepared on a typewriter or can be set up by any printer, while Fig. 10 requires the making of a drawin…

iVuthority reaches down through the several branches of an organization like descent of blood, and, if properly planned, it will be as irregular for a factor in an organization to be in doubt as to the person in authority over him as for the child to deny the parentage of his father. Such a chart should be drawn for every organization, even more especially for those organizations which are shor…

The skeleton may be the same, however, and just as the proper study of the functions of the human body begins with the skeleton, so the study of organization should begin with those simple outlines which appear, in the main, in all completely and successfully organized businesses. Very few enterprises are organized properly. Very few have an organization that can be charted at all. That is one…

The routing of work through the many processes and departments of a large plant is a subject of such great importance that charts are frequently desired for the study of such routing. Fig. 14 is a fairlv good example of this class of chart. In a complete chart, the departments would of course be designated for easy reference, by names, numbers, or letters. Colored ink could be used to keep one…

Orders and other printed forms sent through a large organization must follow a routing entirely distinct from that actually followed bj' the heavy materials. The routing of printed forms in a large business is, in itself, a matter worthy of most careful study to get a true understanding of their complex movements. A clear idea of office system is almost impossible unless the data are charted.…

ONE of a business man's chief assets is his abihty to show things to others in their true proportions. He is continually making contrasts, and holding up for comparison different propositions which come up in his daily affairs. The graphic method lends itself admirably to use in making comparisons. It is surprising how much clearer even simple comparisons of only two or three items will appea…

This illustration is taken from the -eport of the Metropolitan Sewage Commission. The representation as though seen through a microscope is decidedly effective place. The figures for the bacteria count are given with the chart so that all the data are available to anyone who may wish to study the facts from a scientific standpoint. The drawing of Fig. 17 is of the cartoon type, effective for …

money bags should be compared on the basis of diameter, area, or volume. x\lmost the only conclusion which can be drawn from such a diagram is one regarding the relative rank of the different expenditures. The reliability of even that is likely to be questioned because of the evident lack of accuracy in this kind of chart. Nevertheless the cartoonist style should not be broadly condemned, …

washing machine into the area of the larger washing machine. Methods like this cannot be too severely condemned. Commercial geography, as it is now widely taught in the public schools by listing the various imports and exports of countries and the products of different cities, fails to give a clear idea of the Guod Houstkccping Fig. 18. Illustration Intended to Show that the Sale of Washi…

The eye cannot fit one square into another on an area basis so as to get the correct ratio relative importance of the materials listed. It frequently happens that the second or third item on a list may have only one-tenth the importance of the first item. Because the three names are given one after the other, the pupil is quite likely to consider the three items of equal United Stale, importa…

Graphic comparisons, wherever possible, should be made in one dimension only. In such a case as this, one-dimension presentation is perfectly feasible by the use of bars of different lengths. The pupil would find it an almost hopeless task to fit one side of the block for Brazil into one side of the block for the United States and then square the resulting ratio in order to learn that th…

Note the scale duceS rOU^hlv thirtv times at the top of the chart ' & J ' J as much cotton as Brazil. Bars in one dimension only would show the comparison accuratelv. Under any circumstances, the use of the squares of Fig. 19 with the center line through the centers of the squares gives an extremely poor arrangement. SIMPLE COMPARISONS VAtira OF PBODtTCTS FOB PBINCIPAL CITIES: 1909. CITIES …

If this is the case, it is probably due to the fact that the squares appear more prominently to the eye than do the bars, and it would seem that the best kind of presentation might be made by using much wider bars so that the bars would be easily seen. Bars can be made as wide as some of the squares seen in Fig. 19 and, if it seems best, thie bars could be made in outline rather than in solid…

damBStiiwn I Newburfji 1 Walcrlown I ^■■■■•46 75 ^^H •4271 laa •4-0.27 ^m I39.8S ■ <36.1S ■ •35.4-1 I '34-.89 61.74- S4-.87 ^H^B^^^B 'SO. 22 Cities 25000 to 35,000 People ^Figures based on average daily attendance) Fig. 20 gives a diagram taken from another geography book. This is a much better form of presentation than used in Fig. 19. It could, however, be improved by giving th…

The method of placing the figures at the right of the bar is, however, unsafe. The eye is likely to make a comparison, not from the ends of the bars themselves, but from the right-hand end of the figures. Since the figures are of about constant length, visual ratios are inaccurate when made by comparing a short bar plus the constant length of figures with a long bar plus the constant length of …

The chart, Fig. 22, was taken from a report devoted entirely to the city of Newburgh. On this account, it would have been much better if the word "Newburgh" had been printed in heavy -faced type so that it would stand out from the other cities in the list. Where the use of colored ink is possible, it is frequently desirable to make the item under foremost consideration stand out promine…

The values, however, were so large that it was necessary to leave off the last three ciphers and state that the values given are in "thousands of tons." Though the dropping of ciphers is very common, it is a practice likely to lead to serious error and should not be encouraged. Even with the ciphers omitted, the values could not possibly have been given inside the bar if more countries had b…

•1 1 i> 1 \ ^ \ -^ CHILE 4Z H| THOUSANDS of Tons easily read from long ^^ p^ Australia. .34 ■ columns if sufiicient ^^_^g ^^"^ ['/[['^m white paper is left between figures in ^'^- ^4- Production of Copper in Different Countries . J^ for One Year Xne VerTlCai arrang,e- This chart is a redrawing of Fig. 25. The title here should state the year, nient and if each '^"^ ^^^^ ^'^^ °'^'' S^^'^^ ''…

\ .Jri5; shown at the left \ .„:,'////// of the illustration V '^''"'^^^ gives an idea of \ ...„„M// what can be done O '^'^^--'^^^^'^ by hand drawing \ .,..yyy//// m order to at- \ . -^.'^y//// S ^ tract attention to \ .„^y////// ^5 ^ S S » s » the chart itself is V.:.^.^.^ ^ ^ S 3 S S S intended to illu- Unifed States Mexico Spain & Jaoan Chile Australia Germanv Canada ^°''"8"' minate.…

The pigs of copper are not of the same size in the different piles, and it is evident that a pictured pig of copper is not intended to be the unit. If Fig. 25 is drawn on an area basis, it is almost impossible for the eye to fit the area for the right-hand pile into the area of the left-hand pile. This chart is a typical example of thousands of illustrations used by the popular magazines and e…

On the left there is a symbol to attract the eye and interest the observer. Note that a dollar mark is shown on top of the picture of the bale of cotton in one case and the sheaf of wheat in the other, to indicate that the value of the crop is considered rather than the number of units. After the pictures, which may be thought of as "ej^e catchers," we have the figures, and then Dutch E, A…

The illastrations at the left make the presentation popular in form, .vet actual figures for the data are given at the left-hand end of the bars the bars plotted to scale for quick comparison by the reader. This cut could have been improved slightly if the spaces between the sep- GRAPHIC METHODS arate groups of three figures had been made somewhat larger and if the black bars had been made…

The same data may be seen portrayed in a different way in Fig. 6. The arrangement of Fig. 6 is more desirable, in that the size of the components is more readily grasped when all are shown in the same horizontal bar. In Fig. 28 the eye does not readily make the addition necessary to fit together the four items "Single," "Married," "Widowed," and "Divorced" as percentages of the total 100 per…

This chart is grossly misleading because the point where the race started is not shown. It appears, for instance, that for one dollar expended a five-ton gasoline truck will run about twice as far as a five-ton horse truck. This conclusion is entirely unwarranted, and would not be reached by any reader if the chart had been so drawn that the zero point or starting point for the race had …

Here attention is called to the infectious diseases by using solid black bars in contrast with bars shown only in outline zero line. The figures can be placed on the left-hand margin of the chart, immediately between the title for each bar and the end of the bar, in a manner similar to that shown in Fig. 27. Since the zero line must be near the center of the chart, rather than at the le…

Average of S Yearj Ending /9/0 Compared w/ih 4-yearj Ending /905. ewEkriROMJ. EfmARK IV. crj.isrp. CJ!./.&P cmty. CJ-fi. cBsa. flXi-JF yycsTERri Roms. % 20 /s io s o s io is -^ "RailToad Operating Costs." .SiiJTcrn ct Son. New York Fig. 31. Increase is Here Shown to the Right of the Zero Line and Decrease to the Left of the Zero Line. A Heavier Zero Line and Arrows Pointing Right …

The comparison of the losses in the different power systems is very clearly shown in this illustration, which was taken from a paper by George VVestinghouse Broad bars can be used either vertically or horizontally. The horizontal arrangement is usually the more convenient, as it lends itself more readilj' to the use of type and horizontal lettering for the titles, data, etc., of each bar, with…

5 COMNECriCUT b OHIO 7 NtW JERSEY S ILLINOIS 9 COLORADO 10 INDIANA I I RHODE 16LAN0 12 VEJ?MONT CHIL- 5CH0OU tofPENSE DREN IN PLANT PER SCHOOL CHILD iCMOOL- DAY5 CHILD SCHOOL YEAR f" • ]l V/////M V/////A AT- TEND- ANCE EXPEND ITURE. WEALTH DAILY COST HIGH SCHOOLS 5AL- ARItS \: I I II .11 r \V/////A\ \V//////AV/////Ay/////A\y/////A\ \V/////A\ \V/////A\ W/////AV/…

White Indicates that the State Ranks in the Highest 12 of the 48, Light Shading that it Ranks in Second 12, Dark Shading that it Ranks in Third 12, and Black that it Ranks in Lowest 12 The above illustration is a photograph of one page of a pamphlet issued by the Division of Education of the Russell Sage Foundation, regarding the public schools of the United States. This type of chart is cap…

The State with the best schools is shown at the top of the chart and the State with the worst schools is shown at the bottom of the chart. On the chart as a whole, one can see at a glance just how the schools of any State rank with those in the other States, and wherein the greatest defects occur. The chart of Fig. 33 was in a thirty-page illustrated pamphlet sent broadcast over the U…

This pamphlet has resulted in the appropriation of some millions of dollars for the improvement of public schools. The arrangement of the pamphlet itself is worthy of note in that each left-hand page is a chart, while each right-hand page, facing the chart, is devoted to a brief explanation of the conclusions which can be made from a study of the chart. This arrangement of alternate pages of c…

Types order. 27 * Records uct ion 28. .K.\,iiiiine.-<. :9. iiiit iiiis. Slfjis UTider proposed system 1 Ktf I V I* ciii.'tiiii'flr.ifis 2 (J-.i) KirvicwimkI iiiitiiilN. :! CiUI Til I-.. us in "..lit" I>o.\. I (:i::i lielivirv. .^(311 SiKlis. Fig. 35. Routing of a Letter Through the Adjutant General's Office Requesting the Discharge from the Army of an Enlisted Man in Recruitmg Servi…

Arrows joining the various circles then give the routing of the papers through the whole of the journey. The comparison of the existing routine with the proposed routine can be seen by considering the solid lines and the dotted lines and by comparing the two distinct columns or lists at the right. Thirtynine operations may be counted in the present arrangement against five operations in the p…

To the average person this is an almost impossible task, because it is not feasible to fit one circle inside of the other visually as two horizontal bars may be fitted. If the circle for 1900 were estimated as twice the diameter of the circle for 1850, it would mean that the foreign-born population in 1900 was four times as great as that in 1850. If, however, the ratio were something le…

The reader cannot compare the areas visually so as to get the correct ratio measure of the increase in total number of foreign-born population. Horizontal bars are much preferable to circles when comparisons are to be made COMPARISONS INVOLVING TIME for example, one and a half, the average reader would be completely nonplussed, as he would not trouble to go through the mental arithmetic of mul…

Circles compared on a diameter basis mislead the reader by causing him to over-estimate the ratios. Compare Fig. 38 In Fig. 37 the figures are given, and the circles have been drawn on a diameter basis. It will be noted that the figures for 1910 are roughly twice those for 1890. The circle, however, has roughly four times the area of the circle for 1890 and, accordingly, seems to have m…

Circles of different size should never be compared. Horizontal bars have all the advantages of circles with none of the disadvantages as most of the authorities on statistical work recommend. If the figures were not given, the reader would be forced to fit the left-hand circle into the right-hand circle on an area basis, or else make a ratio between the diameters and then square the ratio. …

This kind of graphic work has little real value no necessity of inflicting such cruelty on a reader. Though the circles in Fig. 37, drawn on a diameter basis, exaggerate the ratios, the circles in Fig. 38, plotted on an area basis, make the reader underestimate the ratio. Comparison between circles of different size should be absolutely avoided. It is inexcusable when we have available simpl…

Whether the ratio should be roughly three or roughly nine, we cannot tell. Another example of the same kind of difficulty appears in Fig. 40, but here the figures are given and we can check up the author to see whether he has drawn the 1911 man on the basis of height or on the basis of area. The 1911 man, on account of his far greater area, looks to be rather more than two and a quarter t…

Because of the disproportionate area, the right-hand picture gives the reader a false and exaggerated impression of growth. See Fig. 41 ONE MILE 32,837,000 ONE MILE Fig. 41. Number of Passengers Carried on the Railroads of the United States in 1899 and in 191 1 Compared Here is a chart drawn from the same data as Fig. 40. It was not a larger passenger, but more passengers, that the railr…

Copy for an illustration of this sort is very simply made by taking proofs from a cut of one man and then pasting these proofs on a long strip of paper until a row of the correct length is obtained. The whole arrangement can then be photographed down to produce the effect shown in Fig. 41. To avoid fractional men at the end of a row, it is usually easy to express the ratio with a sufficient n…

Comparison in Size of Trainload on the Chicago, Buriington & Quincy Railroad in 1901 and in 1912 Here one locomotive is above the other but both face in the wrong direction. Figures for the data are not given and the reader cannot tell whether the two lengths compared should include the locomotives or only the cars. Clearness could have been assured if the cars had been shown for comparison in …

In Fig. 43, the two locomotives are placed neck and neck, but the whole chart reads backwards in that it reads to the left instead of to the right. Turn the page over and hold it up to the light. Through the back of the paper, the arrangement of the cars appears from left to right as it should. lavo I880 I900 5.7 242 = too >; 3S ^^^B^^WWB^WHHUHIHll PRODUCTION I EXPORT UPPER riGURES …

No data are given in Fig. 43, and it is impossible to tell whether the comparison between 1901 and 1912 should be based on the ratios of the whole length, including engines, or whether it should be based on the lengths for cars only. A ratio without the engines would be much larger than with engines. This chart is accordingly unreliable. The difficulty in regard to engines being included in th…

THE RISE OF THE LOW-PRICED CAR SHOWING HOW THE AVERAGE VALUE OF EXPORTED AMERICAN AUTOMOBILES HAS DROPPED IN FIVE YEARS World's Wort Fig. 45. The Illustration and the Titles are Shown Above Exactly as Originally Printed The reader is misled if he does not notice that the earliest year has been shown at the bottom instead of at the top. The wording of the two titles, when taken in conjunc…

If the horizontal bars are arranged with the earliest date at the top, any reader who wishes to do so may read the chart as a curve from the left-hand edge of the page and the dates will then appear in correct order from left to right. In Fig. 45 the latest date has been placed at the top of the chart. This causes an impression absolutely the reverse of what it was intended to bring out by…

Cents Miles Per cent I90«' 83 171 130 073 974 654 1.937 .754 32,86 143. 83 69.75 1*7 3 6% 123 259 I 052 119 2.014 .759 31.72 131,71 67.53 iao6 3 548 114 529 982 401 2.003 .748 31. 64 132,33 66.08 iins 109 949 861396 1.962 .766 32,21 130,60 66.78 HI 14 2 998 104 198 829 476 2,006 .780 30,64 133,23 67.79 3 133 103 291 855 442 2.006 .763 30,10 132,…

In tabulations of this sort there is less danger of erroneous reading if the earliest year is shown at the top. Years are usually grouped in fives, including in one group years ending from one to five inclusive, and in the next group years ending from six to ten inclusive In Fig. 46 also, the latest year has been placed at the top of the column instead of at the bottom of the column. Though…

A rapid reader seeing Fig. 47 is likely to get a much exaggerated idea of the increase in the American exports of automobiles. The arrangement of the three horizontal bars for the three years is such that the reader is justified in assuming that the years are consecutive. He is not likely to notice that the upper bar represents the year 1906 and that four years are omitted between 1906 and …

Value, Imports from Abroad 4,910,208 2,446,248 2,000,000 Fig. 48. The Contrast of American Exports and Imports of Automobiles The data of Fig. 47 have here been redrawn. The values have been shown at the left of the bars, where they give the neatest and most convenient arrangement. Note that the bar for 1906 is somewhat separated from the bar for 1911, so as to indicate to the reader tha…

A slight break could indicate in this manner a gap of any large number of years which it would not be feasible to denote by allowing space according to scale. In Fig. 48 the years and the figures for the chart are properly shown to the left much as they are shown in Fig. 24 and in Fig. 27. BU. BU. 1311 1912 1911 1912 A'tw York Times AnnalUt Fig. 49. The Size and the Value of the Com Crop o…

The purpose of the chart was to show that in 1912 the farmers of the country raised more bushels of corn than in 1911 but received less total money in return. Note that the earlier year is placed at the right instead of at the left, and that the dates are given at the top rather than at the bottom. The middle group of bars corrects the error, but the information is still not as clearly broug…

In the case of financial reports it is always the latest year which is of chief interest, and for this reason the arrangement of Fig. 50 seems permissible in order that the figures and the account names may be side by side. The problem in Fig. 49 is so entirely different from that in Fig. 50, that the method of Fig. 50 cannot be held as a precedent to justify the reversed arrangement of date…

Fig. 50. Brief Financial Statement Regarding the Union Bag and Paper Company ' In condensed statements of this sort there seems to be good reason for placing next to the headings at the left the column of figures for the latest fiscal year, since this information is of most vital interest to the reader. Columns for other years are then printed to the right for comparative purposes. The earli…

It is a fair example showing what can be done to arouse interest by the judicious embellishment of charts, especially of those for wall exhibits intended to reach a miscellaneous audience having an average of rather limited education. Note the smokestacks in Fig. 51. The smoke-stack at the left is the same height as the bar for the year 1906-07, and the taller smoke-stack at the right the sam…

Fig. 52 was shown in conjunction with Fig. 51 with the idea of pointing out that the number of students in the University of Cincinnati had increased just as (according to Fig. 51) the number of firms co-operating in the engineering work of the University had increased in the same time. The bars in Fig. 51 and Fig. 52 are placed vertically, each bar representing a year. This vertical arrange…

Note, in this illustration of a wall chart, the popular touch given by the pictures of manufacturing plants with smoke-stacks of the same height as the first and the last vertical bars able to have the bars placed in a vertical position, if they represent divisions of time, rather than entirely distinct subjects such as the separate cities compared as to the value of their output of manu…

It is generally better to use India ink in making the bars if a good result is to be assured. The liquid drawing ink sold at most stationery stores is COMPARISONS INVOLVING TIME INCREASE IN STUDENTS IN] CO-OPERATIVE COURSE ENGINEERING COLLEGE INCREASE 1913 OVER ..1907 I lassv. available in many different colors. Some grades of the drawing ink are water-proof after drj'ing. On elaborate c…

It is certain that the prices (that of pine lumber, for instance, shown by the upper curve) did not have the uniform rate of increase which the straight hue from 1897 to 1907 would indicate. We are considering here, however, the changes over the period as a whole, and we can for simplicity draw a straight line and neglect all the fluctuations of intervening years. The general scheme of Fig…

The Increasing Number of Students in the Co-operative Course of the Engineering College of the University of Cinciruiati This illustration was originally used as a companion piece to the chart of Fig. 51. For a popular exhibit the use of vertical bars brings out information quite clearly. Though curves (such as are shown in later chapters) are superior to vertical bars, it is imfortuna…

In this case, the double lines at the bottom of the chart draw too much attention to the bottom and may cause a wrong interpretation of the chart. As charts of this type are usually made so as to have the bottom at zero, the reader of Fig. 54 may get an entirely erroneous idea of the actual increase in the rates of wages. This chart of Fig. 54 should have been drawn with % inch more room a…

Fig. 55 is a commendable piece of work for popular presentation, as for instance in a magazine. Note the use of dimension marks in two independent horizontal rows so that the upper row indicates the material from which the ships are made while the lower row shows the Reprodvced by Permission from Droege's " Freight Terminals and Trains", copyright, 1913, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company Fig.…

Tendencies for the future are frequently very accurately predicted by drawing a smooth curve through known points and then continuing this curve for future years in the manner shown by the broad line in Fig. 55. The trend of this curve indicates that by 1925, we are likely to have ships about 1,200 feet long. Though the method of prediction by extending a curve into the future is very va…

Periodic photographs of any kind of construction work are one of the most striking forms of graphic presentation. Many large contractors and machine manufacturers now make a practice of having photographs taken of each job at least once each week. The THE RISING WAGE SCALE SHOWING THAT THE PAY OF RAILROAD EMPLOYEES HAS INCREASED FROM 30 TO 50 PER CENT. IN TWELVE YEARS. NOTE THAT THE GENERAL…

If a large card giving the date of the work is placed in front of the camera so that the date is photographed directly into the picture, the date is somewhat more easily proved than it would be otherwise. Putting the date card in front of the camera with the date upon the card gives a chance for any passer-by to check the honesty of the date on the picture, much as the "amount purchased" card…

Many companies are now using moving-picture films to show the technical operations involved in making up their manufactured product, or to show views in different parts of a factory. Moving-picture cameras have been used also in a very striking way by Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth as an adjunct to methods of time and motion study. By placing in the camera field with the worker a clock with a large di…

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A smooth curve line has been drawn through the ends of the pictured ships so as to approximate most closely the general law which seems to govern progress in ship building. The smooth curve has been extended into the future as a prediction of the length of the ships which will probably be built during the next ten years. Note the excellent use of dimension-line arrows at the base of the chart …

In just so much as the moving picture is superior to separate pictures shown by lantern slides, in just that much is a curve superior to a series of horizontal or vertical bars for the same data. Unless a person knows thoroughly how to read and how to plot curves he cannot hope to understand the graphic presentation of facts. The use of curves will be covered in later chapters. HI' 1 1 1 1 1…

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9 a O =i -a o u O) lO Chapter IV TIME CHARTS THE liorizontal-bar method used in Chapter I to show the component parts of any unit may be modified so as to represent various conditions at diflPerent hours, days, and other subdivisions of time. Fig. 57 illustrates a convenient scheme to assist the arrangement of vacations for concerns having many employees, in which it is necessary to pl…

Vacations have here been planned so that not more than two men are away at any one time GRAPHIC METHODS 5f ■ l-ember->t« October- ->|< I I r r 1 1 -- [III -- 1 1 1 1 1 "T 1- T 1 1 1 1 -- 1 1 1 1 1 1 M ><,x^'^ ><,><. ° ° OOP ■ o 1 X ipHH 1 1 o III l><xx^^5?>^>< xixlxlxlx X >i xxxmx X xJi P ™ -November - s -- 0-Jr*- f3 ■ as ; ~ ~ ■ - O- ■ ! s ■ ■ o_ ■ s a ■ KjOOOXXXXXX…

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - -- -- -- -- -- ' -h Sl8 ^ Bonus Earned, ts: Bonus Lost (Zi /^oy W^cr>^ is Day Absent Heavy vertical lines indicate Sundays, SI7 <n|6 ^15 |l4 \ t|3 olE ill / in __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, _ _ _ _ J_ _ "■ ~ '"■ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ _ ~- -- -- -- -- ~ -- ~ ~ ^ ~ -- -- -- -- -- ' -- -- -- i"" R _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ^ …

^ 1 ~ t -- -- -- -- _ -- -- -- -- -- / [V -- -- -- ' -- -- -- -- -- ' -- ' -- ' -- ' -- ' -- ~ _ _^ ^_ -- . _ __ _ _ Mr. H. L. Gantt, in Journal Am. Soc. Mechanical Engineers Fig The , 58. Chart Illustrating Bonus Work in a Factory where Bonus Work was Introduced Too Rapidly at First curve at the bottom shows the total number of workers earning a bonus each…

After a final schedule has been decided upon, the time given each employee can be made sufficiently conspicuous by going over the lead-pencil marks with crayon or ink. A chart of this nature posted on the bulletin board of an office would serve as a convenient means of giving information to the employees as to their respective vacation periods. Fig. 56 (page 52) illustrates a method regularly…

Fig. 58, at the right-hand end, shows that the workers were earning a bonus practically every day, and it also shows clearlj^ that something was wrong during the middle part of October. The workers failed to earn a bonus at that time for the reason that the bonus work was introduced so rapidly that they did not get adequate instruction. The manager of a plant would realize such a situation at o…

The point on the curve is then placed in the lower portion of the chart at the intersection of the horizontal line representing the number of workers earning a bonus and of the vertical line representing the day, October 10. The curve gives a convenient method of determining the total number of operators who are earning a bonus. When it is desired to know only the number of employees earning b…

^ "J u U) H-l rt .£P z V-l 1^ <i> ^B o ■ tn ^3 TIME CHARTS 57 and it is then necessary to make a long sheet by pasting together several of the separate sheets. The original study from which Fig. 59 was prepared was made upon a built-up sheet seventeen inches wide and eight feet long, so that a full month of lighter operation could be shown on the one chart. ,' In a large worki…

Working time may similarly be indicated by solid green and by green strokes with white spaces. It is desirable in all chart work to have certain conventions by which colors would be understood to have certain definite meanings. Thus, following railroad practice, red could generally be used in chart work to indicate dangerous or unfavorable conditions, and green to indicate commended features…

In making up charts like that shown in Fig. 59, the data are usually recorded on the chart day by day as reports come in. This involves a large amount of handling of the chart, and the chart is likely to be much smeared by the time the last reports are entered. If colored crayons with the color embodied in paraffin are used, very brilliant colors can be obtained, yet rubbing with the hands will …

Each of these tenthof-an-inch spaces was made to represent ten-minutes time, so that a much larger scale was obtained than in Fig. 60. As the tug-boat captains regularly kept log-books in which their work was recorded to a five-minute interval the chart was made to the same interval by splitting the ten-minute squares to represent five-minute intervals. With a scale of this size it was feasibl…

The number of lighters and car-floats towed simultaneously is clearly shown in the chart, as well as the time at which each was picked up, and the time at which each was delivered by the tug. In the case of car-floats, a frequent break will be noticed at the end of the towing, one-half the width of the horizontal bar being marked with black. This convention was adopted to show that the idle …

A time chart like Fig. 60 can often be used advantageously in conjunction with other time charts covering the same period of time. Thus, in studying tug-boats, the information on a chart for lighter operation such as is shown in Fig. 59, and on charts for the operation of car-floats or of float bridges, may be valuable. All the various kinds of equipment with which the tug-boats may be employe…

This type of chart is extremely valuable in determining whether or not schedules are maintained uniformly over any period of time. CO GRAPHIC METHODS By using different colors of ink a chart of this kind can be made so as to show all related operations without the drawing becoming too complex to read. Fig. 61 has purposely been made simpler than the ordinary chart of this kind to overcome th…

All the figures for one railroad are shown in curves,* placed one above the other. Ordinarily curves like those in Fig. 62 will be nearly parallel, for the time interval required to complete each of the steps of work remains about the same day after day. What Fig. 62 brings out most of all is not so much the time interval between the different steps as the information as to whether each of th…

The days of the month may be used on the short edge of the paper as in Fig. 62. Fifty-two weeks for one year can be shown by using the long edge of the paper. Three years by months can be plotted by using the thirty-six squares on the short side of the paper. One year by months can be shown by using every third line along the short edge of the paper. TIME CHARTS 5AJ\4 1AM 11 RM 1 P.M. …

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Here we have time represented by days in the horizontal direction and by hours in the vertical direction. The object of the chart is to record whether car-floats are loaded and dispatched at the same hour each Dotted lines show the time at which cars are pushed onto car-floats by locomotives. Solid line.s show the time at which car-floats are towed away by tug-boats. Curves for any one car-float…

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a3o>c \l r 'Strnday. Arrived - time D Bridged - time E Waiting far bridge - houra. Loaded - time ^ . Beparture - time. Fig. 62. Operation of Freight Car-Floats at a Railroad and Steamship Terminal In Fig. 61 several different railroad connections were shown on one large sheet. Here, in Fig. 62, but one railroad is represented on one sheet, with the idea of using as many sheets as there ar…

The blocks for the various States are numbered according to the rank of each State at the first year shown at the left. The rise or fall in rank of each State at each census can be seen at once by following the lines joining the numbered blocks. The actual numerical rank at each census is seen by reading horizontally to the rank number at the right-hand margin or to the numbers in the left-hand…

He could, however, see very clearly that his own position in the sales force was getting better or worse, according to whether his relative-rank line pointed upward or downward. This comparison of selling units on a rank basis is in many respects fairer than any curve based on the value of sales. Good business conditions or bad business conditions afi^ecting all alike do not show up in chart…

With shears and a pastepot, another vertical row of blocks may be added at the right-hand edge of the chart copy each month to provide "copy" for the plate to print the succeeding month's illustration. The identification could be lettered by hand inside of the vertical row of blocks for the latest month. It then takes only a short time to draw lines joining blocks having corresponding numbers…

Fig. 65 would not look so complex if colored ink were available to show in contrast the express passenger trains, the work trains, etc. It is suggested that the reader observe the key at the top of Fig. 65 and then follow a few of the various trains from one end of the line to the other, taking into consideration the fact that this is a single-track railroad and that trains must pass at the t…

Time- TIME CHARTS lero 190O Rank ^ New York 2 Penn. 3 Illinois 4 Ohio 5 Missouri 6 Texas 7 Mass. 8 Indiana 9 Michigan 10 Iowa 11 Georgia 12 Kentucky !3 Wisconsin 14 Tennessee 15 N. Carolina 16 New Jersey 17 Virginia IS Alabaoaa 19 Minnesota 20 Mississippi 21 California 22 Kansas 23 Louisiana 24 S. Carolina 25 Arkansas 26 Maryland 27 Nebraska 2a W. Virginia 29 Conne…

Actual rank at any census can be seen by referring horizontally to the figures at the right or to the figures at the left. A chart of this kind can be used for showing relative rank of salesmen or comparative sales of different branch sales-houses ■ GRAPHIC METHODS TIME CHARTS ^ _. ---- * i::! ^ --*'*'' :==J / ^ '' < =^ J^ \ \ ^y > ^ "■ ' ^ > ^' - -- . ^' 1/ "^ :>: …

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As the train remains constant in length throughout one whole journey it is obvious that the two curve lines must be a constant vertical distance apart throughout the length of the chart. At stations, subway trains must stop in such a way that the whole length of the train will be opposite the platform so that passengers may get in and out of every car. The trains follow each other very rapid…

In Fig. 66 the attempt to give a spectacular scheme of presentation seems to have overshadowed everything else in the mind of the illustrator. Though a striking architectural design has undoubtedly been obtained, the chart means nothing, for it is impossible of interpretation. No scale has been used in either the horizontal or the vertical direction, as can be seen by comparing the figures on t…

Though Fig. 67 gives the data much more clearly and far more accurately than Fig. 66, the method is not satisfactory because it is difficult for the eye to follow the ends of the different bars in order to judge the increase made from decade to decade. The best method GRAPHIC METHODS I830 I840 I850 I860 I870 I504. !280 164-7 IS90 ISOO The Philadelphia Commercial Museum Fig. 66. Comme…

Values of Annual Exports and Imports of the United States. Figures are Given in Millions of Dollars This chart is drawn to scale from the data given in Fig. CO, to show tlie use of horizontal bars for work of this nature of the three is followed in Fig. 68, where the data from Fig. 67 are plotted in the form of a curve. The curve method brings out all the information in less space and in cl…

Lines are drawn vertically for each decade. The scale need not run above 2,300, for the largest figure to plot is 2,244 millions. A suitable scale is secured by using one line for each 200 millions. After the background ruling has been drawn, the figures at each census are laid off to scale, on the proper vertical lines to represent census years, and a dot is placed on each vertical line a…

The curve of Fig. 68 shows the changes from decade to decade much better than the bars of Fig. 67. It can be seen at once from the curve that the greatest gain in any decade was between 1870 and 1880 when the increase was three and a half divisions on the vertical scale. The bars in Fig. 67 have no horizontal scale to measure by and the comparison between census years is accordingly more diffi…

The figures are in plain sight, so that anyone desiring to know the value of any point on the curve can look above the point to get the actual figure wanted, without having to read from the scale at the left-hand edge and then estimate roughly the value for any point which happens to fall in a space between two horizontal lines of the scale. Reading from the figures at the top of the chart pe…

Many illustrations in this book, taken from pubhcations of excellent standing, show dates (such as years, months, etc.) at the top of the chart. If the horizontal scale were always placed at the bottom, the standard arrangement would be a convenience to the reader and would give the additional advantage that the top of the CURVE PLOTTING y /^ / ^ y > y^ lOOO ^^ y "^ chart would be…

The fairly uniform slope of the curve for the first six years after graduation indicates that the men were receiving almost uniform raises in pay each year. It must be remembered that a straight-line curve simply indicates that the amounts of the increases year by year are uniform in numerical value. If a curve were started at the lower left-hand corner of the chart and drawn diagonally ac…

A curve of uniform slope on any chart of rectangular co-ordinate lines indicates only that there has been a uniform increase or decrease in actual numbers, not Fig. 69. Average Income of 155 Princeton Graduates of the Class of 1901 for Ten Years After Graduation Note the effect of the 1907 panic on incomes in 1908 GRAPHIC METHODS values given in Millions of UollaJ^ •PRODUCTION a uniform r…

Though the panic started in October of the year 1907, the year 1907 was really one of the most prosperous years the country has ever known. It would be more fitting if the panic were called the 1908 panic, since the main effect of the panic came in 1908 rather than in the year 1907. It can be seen that the Princeton men had their incomes reduced during the year 1908 so that the averag…

The whole arrangement of the chart is extremely poor and also misleading. In Fig. 71 the data of Fig. 70 have been replotted. The most striking thing about Fig. 71 is the falling off in the rate of increase of production in the decade between 1870 and 1880. The shape of the curve at once starts a train of thought in regard to tariff legislation and other conditions which may affect the manuf…

The drop in the export line from 1860 to 1870 was almost one-half, while the drop in the import line for the same period was much less than one-half, even though the import line does show the greater slope downward. In Fig. 72 we have an example of what not to do in charting. The main effect of the circles is to give one a headache without permitting any accurate comparison between the ye…

Fig. 73 gives the data of Fig. 72 in curve form. The heavy solid line curve shows the changes from decade to decade as they could never be interpreted from either the actual figures or the circles of Fig. 72. The tremendous increase in the world's commerce between 1900 and 1910 is of very great interest, showing the effect which better means of communication have brought about as a resu…

The dotted line shows the erroneous impression which would be obtained by the reader if he should interpret Fig. 72 by the diameters instead of by the areas of the circles diameter basis rather than on the area basis to which the circles were drawn, one gets an interpretation like that indicated by the dotted line in Fig. 73. By comparing the dotted line with the solid curve the reader …

The curve, however, gives all the variations in price at a glance and shows in most striking manner the great reduction which occurred in the price of cement as manufacturing facilities improved and increased. A curve of this kind greatly stimulates thought, for one immediately wishes to know the cause of each of the peaks and of each of the valleys in the curve. One gets a vista of recurring …

It is really a calamity that curves are not more widely understood. Ad vertising men are now frequently unable to convince people of their argument simply because they have no language by means of which figures can be made interesting or even intelligible when expressed in an advertisement of hmited size. The author ventures to predict that it will be only a very few years until curves are s…

•> / \ s f \ / ^ a m ^ s ; \ ! i i i 5 i i i § 1 i FTom Data Fi 1 s s Chicago Fig. 74. Prices of Cement, per Barrel, in Bulk, at the Mill, from 1880 to 1910 Columns of printed figures or a series of vertical bars could not portray this information as vividly as it is brought out by the curve shown above GRAPHIC METHODS hour, or even more frequently. The curve, therefore,…

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The black areas indicate the portion of the ^-t-hour power-house load for which the gasoline engine would be used The curve looks smooth in this illustration simply because the gauge readings were taken so frequently that the nearness of the many points made the lines joining them appear curvilinear rather than angular. Such a smooth curve would not have resulted if gauge readings had been ta…

If the curve of Fig. 76 were plotted on the same horizontal scale as the curve of Fig. 77, the flood would appear to be much more severe and rapid than it appears from Fig. 76. CURVE PLOTTING / \ / \ o / V. "^ o Atob/7 /Voon Noon Sept.eth Sept.Tth. Sept.ath. Time in Hours Engineering Record Fig. 76. Curve Showing Duration of a Flood, September 16, 1909, in the Canadian River, New…

If the co-ordinate lines were drawn so as to show the zero line, the base of the chart would be about ^ inch lower than it appears in Fig. 77, and the whole curve would make a different impression. The omission of the zero line in charts of this kind is particerror made by persons ZDOOO 24 25 26 27 28 29 JO jr I 2 March. 1913 April Engineering Retard Fig. 77. Flood in the Hudson River…

It is difficult to see how such an unsatisfactory type of chart ever came into general use, unless it was because there are twelve months in a year and twelve hours on the face of a clock. If the death rates for the different months of the year were plotted in a curve, using rectangular coordinates, the data would be just as easy to read and to understand as when shown by the radial sc…

Though a chart in the form of Fig. 79 might be justified in the Sunday supplement of a newspaper where an untrained audience must be reached, it is much better to use a curve in the form of Fig. 80 Avhenever a trained audience is assured. The most interesting thing about Fig. 79 is the slanting line which gives an unusual optical illusion if observed under artificial hght, especially with a b…

Figures for the dotted line are obtained by averaging the figures for the first two years, then the first three years, then the first four years, etc., until the last point on the dotted line represents an average for all the points on the solid line. Fig. 80 is worthy of attention as a model of good practice which may be studied carefully by anyone just beginning to plot curves. 1879- I95TO…

f f > - y / <►' ^ » .--' ) •"^ / •s. ^ - ^ ** . " ** / f # * l» ■ < t "• - ■ ■ m ■ ^ Mil* . •- B m « • • L_ r«a>(0(OQ)(DO<Ofloa)<9<i)0)Ano) intDr"00a>o -- <Meq^in<piscoO)o oinoioioioooooooooo -- Fig. 80. Yearly Average of Revenue Tons per Train Mile on the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad. The Slanting Line Shows a Progressive Average Here we have the data…

3. All lettering is so made that it can be read horizontally or from the right-hand edge of the sheet. 4. Years are given with four figures for every tenth year ending in zero. Other years are indicated with two figures so that they may be more quickly read. CURVE PLOTTING 83 5. All letters and figures on this chart were made by hand, showing the perfection which may be attained by practice…

The statement "Revenue Tons per Train Mile" at the upper left-hand corner is purposely printed diagonally so that it may serve as a heading for each of the two columns of figures, one at the left and the other at the top of the chart. The diagonal arrangement gives a neater effect than can be obtained otherwise. 10. Though figures for the dotted curve could be shown at the top of the chart th…

For example, in a bacteriological examination of a pond at varying depths, distance below the surface would be the independent, and number of bacteria per cubic centimeter the dependent variable. In a seasonal gauging of a stream the dates of observation would be the independent and cubic feet per second of flow the dependent variable. Sometimes we consider more than two variables simultaneo…

This example is an exceptional case and it is named here only to show that, although time is CURVE PLOTTING 85 ordinarily the independent variable when it enters into curve plotting, nevertheless there may be occasions when time is the dependent variable, and charts should be plotted accordingly. It is important that the person drawing a chart should in each case distinguish between the indep…

scale and read the information from the horizontal scale, or the reverse. If charts are always plotted with the independent variable as the horizontal scale, there need be no question in the reader's mind as to how he should interpret the chart. The rule for scale arrangement is not always followed, and a so' or/- piEfj-/!- few examples are shown here to indicate the (JImple" 3soTo 3Si) diff…

In making the tests which are represented in Fig. 81, different depths below the surfaces were selected and the bacteria determined from the water samples taken at these depths. The depth is here the independent variable, and bacteria per cubic centimeter the dependent variable. The decision as to which is the independent variable and which is the dependent variable rests entirely on how the …

As Fig. 81 is shown it is necessary for the person interpreting the chart to select from the vertical scale some number of feet below the surface and then read the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter by the horizontal distance to the right. It is only after some little puzzling that the reader will notice that the scales for the variables have been reversed and that the chart has been prac…

The arrangement of Fig. 82 is not as objectionable as Fig. 81, for the upper half of the illustration sliows quite clearly in pictorial form that the subject under consideration is a stream having a channel shaped as shown, with widths and depths as indicated by the two scales. In the bottom portion of the diagram the scale of depths downward relates very definitely to the upper portion of th…

The horizontal scale at the top of the illustration shows points where velocity measurements were made through holes in the ice. Velocities at different depths are indicated by the curves in the lower half of the chart, each curve being plotted to the right of a vertical zero line which corresponds with some hole in the ice. Lines are drawn in the upper portion of the chart showing different po…

In the upper portion of the illustration lines are drawn through all those points in the stream cross-section which have the same velocities. The lines are similar to the well-known isothermal lines on a weather map show- GRAPHIC METHODS ing where the temperatures are the same. From these hnes it can be seen instantly that the highest velocity is at the center of the stream, as far away as …

The price of anthracite coal should have been made the horizontal scale of the chart. See Fig. 84 Fig. 82 is an interesting piece of work and the method used in charting is justifiable, even though in this case, as in the preceding, the independent variable is plotted downward and the dependent variable is plotted horizontally. 5 10 o 9 o o 7 (J I- 6 <u ? 3 > +3 a ^^ ^ ^ ^^ J\ …

It is only after some puzzling over the chart that one notices that the whole chart has been drawn in reversed order. We are considering what the relative values of other coals may be if we know the value of anthracite coal. The whole scheme of reasoning begins with the "price of anthracite coal." The "price of anthracite coal" is the independent variable and should be plotted horizontally, w…

The lines for different fuels now appear in their correct order, and the reader sees at a glance that Pocahontas coal has more fuel value than anthracite coal. Notice that a heavy line has been used for the curve line drawn for anthracite coal. As this line is the standard by which the values are compared, it seems best to give it prominence on the chart. The position of other curve lines abo…

The curve for operator No. 1 then appears below the curve for operator No. 2 and the chart shows correctly the relative merits of the two operators. Fig. 86 is a redrawing of the data shown in Fig. 85. Here the curves for the two operators appear in their correct relative position, and it is seen at once that operator No. 1 is the more rapid worker, since he uses less time. With the inde…

Fig. 87 shows the data of Fig. 85 and Fig. 86 redrawn in the form of horizontal bars such as were seen in Chapter I and Chapter II. The relative times for the various operations are shown much more clearly by the horizontal bars than by the curves used in Fig. 85 and Fig. 86. The time in seconds required for each operation is given by detailed dimension lines above each section in the horizont…

The actual differences between the two operators would show more clearly, operation by operation, if lines were used joining the ends of the components in the two bars in a manner similar to that seen in Fig. 32. The data of Fig. 85 do not lend themselves well to presentation in curve form. In Fig. 85 and in Fig. 86 the shape of the curves means nothing, since there is no numerical scale …

~-\ -- --•- r-l A- -V- JT] X 1 /--~-.i^- + ItttlitM^^WtifM^r "M iff f--T-^- -:::l^ ,^-f^-^ - i . -L.^ ! ! ' M ! ir _w_! U_| _ -, <ti' i ftth t; Reaches - for label : Reaches for brush - Wipes : brush on -r 9lue pot :: Brings :: brush To -- label Covers __ label with -- qlue ^ Replaces 4 brush Puts - label on -T- package ~~_ Adjusts 6c X smoothes -- a label :: Operat…

Fig. 87. Record of a Detailed Time-Study of Two Operators Labeling Packages By this method of presentation the reader may see clearly the relative length of time for different operations as well as the comparison of total time taken by the two workers. Dimension marks and figures show conveniently the actual number of seconds required. The different operations have here been given numbers inst…

It is unfortunate that this illustration was not made so as to show the zero line of the vertical scale. In advertising work it usually pays to avoid anything which might seem like exaggeration. Omitting the zero line makes the growth seem more rapid than it would if the zero line were included in a chart drawn to scale. Though the drafting on this chart might have been better, the application …

There is a chance that the man who has advertising to place may feel CURVE PLOTTING that the chart has been drawn in too optimistic a manner because it does not show zero at the bottom of the scale. It would have given a much more conservative impression if the excellent record of circulation growth had been plotted in curves having the zero line shown at the bottom of the chart, so that the …

S R 3CRRCPCSSCPCC PCS: PC R R Fi PC PC S S Sn S Sf? C S R S Heating and Ventilating Magazine Fig. 89. Record of the Weather in New York City for December, 1912 The heavy line indicates temperature in degrees Fahrenheit The light solid line shows wind velocity in miles per hour The dotted line depicts relative humidity in percentage from readings taken at 8 a.m. and 8 p.m. Arrows portray the p…

number of gallons used per day has been divided by the number of inhabitants in the district so as to obtain a figure for the average daily consumption of water per capita. As the population figure used depends upon census records it may be necessary to get the rate of growth in the population from records as much as ten years apart. In Fig. 90 it can be observed that the slanting lines showin…

The method of locating the slanting lines can be worked out by anyone who will experiment a little in making a chart of this type. When the population is known and the total consumption is known, it is only a matter of division to determine the consumption per capita. After the slanting lines are once placed upon the chart, the curve can be read either from the horizontal lines showing the t…

In spite of the large growth of the city from 1908 to 1912, there has been a general decrease in the total quantity of water consumed. The decrease in total consumption is chiefly due to the metering of water to individual users, eliminating a large part of the Avater waste which formerly occurred because of carelessness on the part of consumers. The actual percentages of the services which w…

I'sing the horizontal ruled lines, we may read from the curves the average total consumption per day. By reading from the slanting lines, the same curves may be interpreted as the average consumption per capita per day. The scheme of using two sets of co-ordinate rulings is a valuable one. The scale for "million gallons per day" should, however, have been shown only at the left, with the slant…

The exact amount of resemblance of these waves to each other could be determined in an interesting manner if a separate curve were plotted for each year so that all the curves would be shown one above the other in the manner seen in Fig. 103. 96 GRAPHIC METHODS Just how much the total consumption in water has been decreased, even though there was an increasing population, may be seen by ref…

The dotted line shows conclusively by its slant that the total consumption from 1905 to 1908 inclusive went up just about as rapidly as the growth of the population would lead one to expect. After 1908, however, there was a tremendous drop in total consumption, even though the population kept on increasing. In 1912, the average total consumption per day went up somewhat above 1911, but yet it …

The scale for the slanting co-ordinate lines could then be placed at the end of each slanting line at the right-hand side of the chart. The scale for the slanting co-ordinate lines is too difficult to find in Fig. 90. An interesting study could be made from Fig. 90 by plotting a curve which would show each year the percentage of services which were not metered, instead of using the figures a…

The moving-average curve is a much smoother curve than a curve made from the monthly figures, and is accordingly more easily interpreted. The degree of smoothness of any moving-average curve depends chiefly on the number of points included in the moving average as compared with the number of points in one complete wave or cycle in the data curve, and the moving-average curve is most smooth if…

Since the distance between peaks on the curve making one cycle of fluctuation averages more nearly ten years than three years or five years, the ten-year curve more closely approximates a smooth curve line than either of the other two curves. As a matter of fact, the intervals between peaks change somewhat so that it is difficult to select any one number of years as the correct number for us…

The peak in the ten-year moving-average curve in 1886 was caused by the number of years included in the moving average not being a true representation of the length of one full cycle. The length of the cycle changes from time to time, so that no one selected cycle length is satisfactory for the whole curve. The heavy curve sketched in by hand is the fairest approximation to show the trend of …

Though it is good practice to plot smoothed curves in this manner with each point midway in the horizontal range of the points included in any moving average, there are times when it is not desirable to have the point on the moving-average curve fall behind the latest point on the data curve. For operating records in industrial work, the moving-average curve is convenient to show an average …

Index numbers are used very commonly in the study of facts relating to the prices of commodities over a long period of time. When making comparisons by index numbers, conditions are selected which as nearly as possible represent the normal or typical conditions for the subject under consideration. The figures for other dates are then compared with the figures representing the normal condition…

It is very common to find a chart relating to index numbers so drawn that the chart does not extend to the zero of the vertical scale. Such a chart may give a false impression of much more violent fluctuation than would be interpreted from a chart plotted on the usual co-ordinate field and showing the zero of the vertical scale. Fig. 92 is taken from the United States Government Cr…

It has been the hope of this magazine to give producers of agricultural products an opportunity to study the price records of previous years, so that they may, in so far as possible, sell at the time of the year when prices are the highest. It is much to be doubted whether the average reader of charts like that seen in Fig. 92 would realize that the 100 per cent line must be used as a basis f…

Where charts for index numbers are made on the 100 per cent basis, it would seem best to have a broad Hne for the 100 per cent line. If there is not room to extend the co-ordinate field down to the zero of the vertical scale, the co-ordinate field may be shown broken off with a wavy line at the base indicating to the reader that the bottom of the chart is not a zero line, and that the chart mu…

< T O 19tO zero line, a chart is obtained which needs little space and which nevertheless is on a large scale, giving a great amount of « 2o I I ly i I I I I I 1 1 I I 1 1 I 1 1 I I I 1 1 1 1 . 1 I I I l y i I 1 1 1 1 I i ^i iin detail so as to per- ^ 3o J=--y- ^i^it accurate read- ' "^ iTf ing of all the various points on the curve. There is very small chance for any untrained reade…

A much greater fault with the chart, however, is found in the fact that the chart compares the operation of a railroad in different years by using the year 1908 as unity. 1908 was a panic year, with very serious business depression affecting railroads even more than some Fig. 93. Fluctuation in the Price of Eggs in the United States as Compared with the Average of the Monthly Figures for the…

Improvement in Economy of Operation of ment in business conditions and in spite of reduced efficiency in the operation of this individual railroad, considered 'per se. It is not intended here to cast any reflections upon the managing ability on the railroad in question. The only object in mentioning the matter at all is to point out the fact that the use of the year 1908 as unity puts the r…

Fig. 94 the Wheeling and Lake Erie Raibroad, 1908 to 1912 It will be noticed from the upper left-hand corner of the chart that the j'ear 1908 is taken as unity. 1908 was a year of great business depression. As business conditions naturally improved in the years following 1908, there could be a legitimate question in the reader's mind whether the better showing of the railroad is due to bett…

These charts cover practically all phases of railroad operation and give in condensed form a tremendous quantity of information. RELATIVE RETAIL PRICES OF FOOD: SIMPLE AND WEIGHTED AVERAGES-UNITED STATES AVERAse PRICE TOR I890-ISS9" 100.0 1890 ia»l 1B92 1893 1694 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 19 02 11 03 1904 1906 1906 190? 1908 1909 1910 1911 IS 1 1 i Simple Year Average aelatlvtf …

ZreLATIVE prices weighted according to the AVERA6E CONSUMPTION 15 PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF FOOD, OF THE VARIOUS AfiTICLES OF FOOD IN WORKINCMEWS FAMILIES. F;m e-«au. of L»l..r St».t;»e;ci, U.S. D./...rm.«f ^ '■'■'■•' (-,,..,...■.,>-...■ . ...-. Counesy of F. J. WaTne, Washington, D. C. Fig. 95. Relative Retail Prices of Fifteen Principal Articles of Food in the United States, 1890 to 1912, by …

There is such a great quantity of data arranged in convenient form for reference, it seems Hkely that a person wishing to study railroad operation could obtain more insight into present-day railroad conditions by two-hours' study of this series of charts than he could pos- GRAPHIC METHODS SNO± JO SNOmiW -tO «oot>-Q3ia^ertM" - « IndtistHal Depressions, iv 0. H. HvU Fig. 96. A Study of Steel…

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It is obviously of less importance to the workingman if the price of salt should increase 500 per cent than if the price of bread or meat should increase 50 per cent. When the fifteen articles of food are considered by simple averages, all foods are considered as though used in equal quantities and a very great increase in the value of some one food would seriously affect the simple average …

Weighted averages are of very great importance in most studies relating to the cost of living, and they could be used in other work much more widely than at present if their importance and utility were more generally understood. It is unfortunate that in Fig. 95 the term "relative prices" is used in the lower portion of the chart as the key for the dotted line. The simple averages show relati…

In a chart of this kind some estimates and approximations must be made because it is usually impossible to obtain accurate data to the extent desired. For work of this nature it will ordinarily be found that a little "horse-sense", used in making estimates for missing data, will permit the construction of a chart giving an astonishingly large number of suggestions useful in determining the po…

It is in just such problems as these; where a number of different sets of data must be compared, that curves have tremendous advantage over presentation by columns of figures. A man must be almost a genius to grasp quickly the facts contained in several parallel columns of figures, yet anyone of average intelligence can interpret correctly a chart which has been properly made for the presenta…

When a chart like that shown in Fig. 97 is used, no mental effort is required to get at the gist of the matter, and the facts can be obtained much more rapidly than would ever be possible by observing columns of figures alone. A chart like that used in Fig. 97 can be prepared from tabulated figures by any ordinary draftsman in less than one hour of work. The cost of making a line cut is proba…

I 23-4 56789 lO II IE I 23456789 lO AJvl. P.M. Data of the New York Edison Company Fig. 97. Number of Telephone Messages Each Hour for One Day in a Business District in New York City as Compared with a Residence District Solid line, the "Broad" exchange -- a tj'pical business exchange Dotted line, the "Riverside" exchange -- a typical residence exchange Note the great number of business ca…

The slope of a curve plotted on paper with ordinary co-ordinate ruling depends largely on whether the data of the curve are in large figures, so as to bring the curve near the top of the chart, or in small figures, bringing the curve near the bottom of the chart. In Fig. 98 the fact that curve A slopes more than curve C is due to the fact that curve A is placed higher on the vertical scale of…

Though the chart proves fairly well the close dependence of the price of cast-iron pipe upon the price of the pig iron from which it is made, the chart is nevertheless misleading in that the first glance would indicate a much greater fluctuation in the price of pig iron than actually occurred. nJ^-^C -- .:S ~° ^^ -c:/^.i i 1 H"t Y rSWAtf MsU [4=\=H M T T\4vf rM-UJ in - T TT TN-l 1 l\ Lo …

Deaths in Boston of Children under Five Years of Age, under One Year, and from Five of the Principal Infectious Diseases, Expressed as a Percentage of the Total Mortality Curve A. Deaths of children under five years of age as a percentage of the total mortality Curve B. Deaths of children under one year as a percentage of the total mortality Curve C. Deaths from Diphtheria, Scarlet Fever, …

He is quite likelj^ to think that the price of pig iron had all the rapid fluctuations which would be indicated by the changing vertical distances between the pig-iron curve and the bottom line of the chart itself. The amount of fluctuation would look much less if the chart extended to the zero line of the vertical scale. GRAPHIC METHODS s;:: = ss:s:ss = : = 2;sti?,-: | 1930W3AON - o is…

In addition to this there is probably another serious fallacy which affects all three curves shown on the chart. The income figures from which the curves are plotted may not all be shown on the same basis. Men working on a salary have as net cash all the money they receive. Men in professions such as law, medicine, etc., where office rent and other expenses are likely to be very heavy, …

The bar method is in itself a simple one, but when the bars are combined in the manner shown in Fig. 101 the presentation becomes really more complex than if the data were shown in the form of curves. Fig. 102 certainly brings out the information of Fig. 101 in much better form than any in which it is possible to show it by any combination of bars either vertical or horizontal. The person who…

living undoubtedly went up between 1901 and 1906 course have to be made to get a true comparison of the shipping of the two countries, for our purpose the thing of greatest interest is the general tendency of shipping in the two countries. This we can study fairly well from the general shape of the different curves, even though the curves cannot strictly be compared with each other in so far …

will be apparent from the similarity in the shape of the curves for the different years. In order to use a fairly large vertical scale so as to make the fluctuations stand out clearly, it was necessary to avoid entirely the zero lines for the curves plotted in Fig. 103. The omission of the zero ^^MM Tonnage engaged in Foreign Trade lines may cause the fluctuations C=Z1 Tonnage engaged In Dome…

comparative purposes is great enough to offset the disadvantage of not having the zero lines on the chart. The zinc plate for Fig. 103 was prepared directly from typewritten copy, with no handwork involved except to make heavier some of the green background lines and to draw the actual curves themselves. loi. Comparison since 1850 of the -nt ■• • t;>- tao -i-u -1- -tu ti. Merchant Tonna…

The different bars so closely grouped together ^jo-tit of thp nrpppdino- piirvp "Rv are exceedingly difficult to interpret. See "gUL Ol LUe pieceuillg CUrVC. DJ Fig- 102 repeating the last month of each curve in this manner, the interpretation of the curves is much simplified SO that the reader can see at once what has been the tendency of the curve from December to January each year. If the D…

Comparison since 1850 of the Merchant Tonnage of the United Kingdom with that of the United , States Gross tonnage is given for the United States and net tonnage for the United Kingdom. Solid lines United States, dotted lines United Kingdom. The "total" figures are not strictly comparable because ' of the difference in registration method. The general tendencies of the curves are instructive…

3.6 4.4 1909 4.0 O 3.6 4.4 1910 4.0 3.6 4.4 1911 4.0 3.6 4.4 1912 4.0 3.6 4.4 1913 4.0 3.6 4.4 1914 4.0 O ^'' - - f > k i f f > m - • / s ^ ,>» ^ s. ^ ^ ^ - - w ^ ^ ^ ^ ■■ ■^ " ~ ■■ ' » «. -- - - -- _ _ _ . ^ -- r -- -- ~ ~ -- ~ -- -- -- ~ ~ / s i \ ^ / ^ z" ^ ^ / s, - ,> «» f /> " > «/ ^ " hi _ _ …

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It would be better if the heavy line border around the edge of this chart were omitted. The heavy line at the bottom does not coincide with the zero line and the reader may be misled by reading the chart from the border line different years so that comparisons between these different years are easily made. This scheme of superimposing curves for different years is a very common one that frequ…

-- r^-v /^ / \ ^ ; \ / \ / 'V \ 1-- ♦' \ \ / ^ \ H- \ ,[ \ y ^ s h- >-- v > <- i \ \ \ 'l To 13] "ue 1.11 )ec. . / >. / \ \ * on! Fue 1, De c.l£ , i k^ y \ ><^^ 1 j\ ►^ \ ^-^ \ / \^ ^-. / ^ ^ \'^ «^^ \ l] '; ^^. / (^ / ^ 1* ( n1 \ 1 ( ll \l l' \ f i ' \ , ' ^ ,' -\ \ 1 o < ' s o e c ) i> Dec.1911 3…

Comparison of Daily Electrical Output and Daily Coal Consumption of a Power Plant for the Same Month in Two Succeeding Years There is a relatively small quantity of power needed on Sundays. In order to make possible a comparison of the two curves for different years the horizontal scales for days were so placed that the Sundays would coincide. With curves thus arranged, the low points caused b…

It can be seen that the January figures for "Operating Revenues" are all considerably lower than the December figures, but even so the reader has no clear idea of the slope of the lines which would be most typical to portray the changes from December to January in each year. This question of repeating one point for curves of different years superinlposed is referred to also in Chapter XI…

The two curves in Fig. 108 are quite different in their shape, although they were taken for the same period of time in districts not widely separated. The size and general character of different water-sheds have EdiDin D. Dreyfus, in Indusirial Enoineering Fig. io6. Average Temperature at Pittsburgh, Pa., for Each Hour in the Day for Different Months in the Year. Plotted for Monthly Averages…

In selecting a scale for Fig. 110 the draftsman is torn between a desire to show the San Francisco fire peak at its correct height, and an opposing desire to show on a large scale the data for a whole series of years so that the fluctuations from month to month maybe clearly defined. It seemed best to cut off the top of the San Francisco peak so as to show the monthly data on a sca…

Plotted from Records of the United States Signal Service and of Blodgett's Climatology of the United States Information for eight different cities is so given that comparisons are easily made. Note the different Hncs used here instead of colors. Since Pittsburgh was the city under prime consideration, the Pittsburgh line was made heavy ttiat it might be most clearly seen. This chart gives a g…

In the preceding illustrations of this chapter there has been such similarity in the shape of the curves considered that they were superimposed for comparison. Here the curves are of different shape and they are shown in separate fields so that the contrast may be more striking. The chart at the left should have had the zero line shown. It is dangerous to base conclusions on the comparison of tw…

/ , ^^^ \ /, ' \ /. ^" -- _J_ / \ _l \ __ ~-- -^ ] C -J ' W 3l Iron Age Fig. 109. Comparison of Different Kinds of Steel Containing 0.2 per cent Carbon, as shown by Tensile Tests on Specimens 100 mm. long and 13.8 mm. diameter. The Vertical Scale Represents Thousands of Poxmds per Square Inch and also Percentage of Contraction or Elongation The heavy line shows ultimate st…

almost three times the height of the portion shown on this illustration, it would be necessary to make two other hinges in the horizontal extension so that the peak could be bent downward and turned backward from right to left, giving something of a spiral effect. Though this bent peak may seem rather artificial, it is quite certain that the > ■* (M 0) r) o to 1901 1302 1903 19 04 1905 …

Remember that for these two charts the buildings destroyed are not necessarily the new buildings whose value is given. The black area represents only the value of buildings destroyed whether new or old. Note the Ben Day shading on the upper ends of the bars and the figures for the data from which the chart was made GRAPHIC METHODS 28.60 28.40 28.20 30.40 30.30 ~~ f7 Tir n ~ _ u... …

While Fig. 110 gives some general idea of the proportion which American fire losses bear to the value of new building construction, the two fluctuating curves make it difficult for the reader to make an estimate of the percentage losses year by year. Fig. Ill supplements Fig. 110, and gives for each year the total values for new building construction and the total values of building…

Fig. 114 shows an error in curve plotting into, which it is very easy for an inexperienced person to slip. One vertical scale is relatively 5.00 5.30 6.00 6.30 7.00 7.30 8.00 8.30 9.00 P. M Time Monday, Maich 14, 1910 P. M. Sam. L. NavMaJy, in J<mmal American Society of Mechanical Engineers Fig. 112. Record of Test of a Steam Turbine of 10,000 Kw. Normal Rating at Plant of City Electric Comp…

If the reader cares to see how these two curves would contrast if properly plotted, the left-hand scale for "corn yield" can be changed so that the different horizontal lines will be represented by the figures 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, etc. The data for "corn yield" can then be plotted to the new scale, and it will be found that the new curve does not coincide with the "rainfall" curve as closely as …

Anything used for an eyecatcher should apply definitely to the subject matter of the curves. Here the subject is freight-train operation, but the picture shows the interior of a passenger train GRAPHIC METHODS J in Fig. 115 gives a good example of a total curve made by adding the figures for different curves. Instead of using addition to get a set of figures from which a total curve may be p…

the graphic method of stepping off the height for the total curve is practically the only one available. After each of the separate curves has been plotted from such data as may exist, it is a very simple matter by the graphic method to locate the total curve from the separate curves. A sufficient number of vertical lines are used to bring the points on the total curve close enou…

Chart to Show the Dependence of Com Yield upon the Quantity of Rainfall during the Month of July. The Yield of Corn is Given in Bushels per Acre This chart is misleading. The close similarity of the two curves has been obtained by plotting one curve on a larger scale than that used for the other curve. The rainfall curve has been plotted with the bottom of the chart as zero. The corn-yield c…

Curve D shows the fluctuations in the load on a power house supplying all of the buildings represented by curves A, B, C, E and F. By combining loads of different types, the power plant can be kept more continuously busy than otherwise possible. After the other curves are all plotted, curve D can easily be located by stepping ofl^ with draftsmen's dividers on each vertical line the heights of al…

A chart of this kind would be especially striking if used in advertising, or in a report where concentration upon only one general idea was needed, without a great amount of specific detail. Though Fig. 116 shows that telephone rates have had a constantly downward GRAPHIC METHODS je99 1900 1901 I90a (905 1906 1907 (908 (909 Courtesy of Daia, Cfiicago Fig. ii6. Chicago Telephone Rates per Ye…

The plotted points for different years on a chart of the kind suggested would show by the arrangement of the points whether the prices had changed exactly in accordance with the number of telephones in use. Fig. 117 has been very carelessly drawn in that the two curves do not have their vertical scales start at the same zero line. The zeros for each of these scales are so close to the curv…

After this first chart has been made, a second chart can be drawn in which the "Price" cvu've would be plotted exactly as in the first chart. The curve for the number of barrels of "Exports" should, however, be plotted downward from the top of the chart, after a good position has been selected for the top of the chart so that the "Exports" curve plotted downward from the top would coincide as…

It frequently happens that the relations between two curves are such that the most striking presentation can be obtained by plotting one curve upside down so as to bring the two curves as closely into coincidence as possible, and the scheme should be kept in mind as it is frequently of assistance in making facts stand out vividly. CoiiTlcsy of Penn.il/tvanta Farmer Fig. 117. Exports of Appl…

Dots for the different years placed on such a chart, after the general manner of Fig. 119, will appear so widely scattered over the whole field that the reader will find it almost hopeless to draw any general conclusion from the arrangement of the dots. Though the dots indicate by their position a general tendency GRAPHIC METHODS for exports to decrease as prices increase, there would seem to…

The use of more lines than necessary should be avoided as it tends to cause confusion. See Fig. 119 as another method of charting the same data In order to determine just how closely the price of apples depends upon the supply, Fig. 119 was prepared from the data of Fig. 118. Though the dots in Fig. 119 represent a rather long series of years, they nevertheless have a fairly symmetrical arran…

This would also have some tendency to raise prices in spite of the tremendous number of apple trees which have come into bearing in the later portion of the period of time under consideration. The general method of plotting shown in Fig. 119 is of great importance and it should be kept in mind whenever two curves are found having similarities such as are seen in Fig. 118. Other examples …

By this method, the positions of the dots on the chart show whether there is any close relation between supply and price. The dots fall in fairly regular order, proving better information f Or the Studcut than Fig. 118 that the price does largely depend upon the o i • . -ittt i supply. A smooth curve has been drawn to represent Ot hlStory. We are here lU- approximately the general relation be…

It must be remembered in viewing this chart that the populations of the Asiatic countries (especially the populations of China and India) are not shown here. If all the countries of the world were considered, it would be seen at once that for many years to come there is no likelihood of the United States having the greatest population in the world. It is only because Asiatic countries have b…

The Population of the United States Compared with the Population of the Principal Countries of Europe from 1800 to 1900, Inclusive Written words requiring one hour to read could not convey as much information as this chart gives. In considering the slope of the curve for the United States it must be remembered that the slope of a curve does not indicate the percentage rate of increase or decrea…

Fig. 121 has been drawn to assist in proving the preceding statement regarding curve slope. Starting with one dollar, it was assumed that a uniform increase of 10 per cent of the accumulated amount would be made at the end of each year. This is the same as though the dollar were placed at 10 per cent compound interest. At the end of thirty-six years it can be seen that the one dollar has…

This similarity in shape shows conclusively how much the reader would be misled if he should assume that the increasing slope of the curve in Fig. 120 proved in itself an increase in the rate of growth. The actual percentage rate of the growth for Fig. 120 can best be studied by making an entirely new chart for the purpose of observing percentage rates only. j n^ 1 , ' i f , f f > / …

The true function of such a chart is to portray comparative fluctuations. This desired result is secured clearly and satisfactorily when the factors or quantities compared are of nearly the same value or volume, but analysis will show that the result is not accomplished when the amounts compared differ greatly in value or volume. The extent or degree of the fluctuation as indicated on the ordi…

Charts made on a percentage basis are used to some extent in graphic work, and these correct the deficiency in the ordinary chart by showing the changes in the percentages of increase or decrease. In correcting one deficiency, however, another is introduced. The percentage scale gives no clue to the magnitude of the quantities represented by a curve. The true proportions of relative changes ar…

No matter what the location on the chart, if the logarithmic spacing is used on the vertical scale, for curves, the angle of the upward or downward inclination is the same for all curves affected by the same percentage of change. Curves having an increase equaling the distance from 100 to 200, 200 to 400, 300 to 600 (or the distance between any number on the scale and double that number) have…

Just because the curves in the upper portion of the chart represent numerically larger quantities, they have much more vertical movement up and down on the face of the chart than those curves in the lower portion of the chart which may have an even greater amount of percentage fluctuation. This wide difference in the amount of vertical movement on a page is one unfortunate source of confusion …

For persons who understand even slightly the principles involved in reading charts plotted on logarithmic paper. Fig. 123 shows up the facts in much more convenient form than Fig. 122. To make comparison most convenient, the two figures are placed on facing pages, 134 and 135. GRAPHIC METHODS I90Z /904 I90S l9Qb I90S teoo y ■ y y \ \ ^ ' \ ^ ji -\l\ zzoo ^ Ti \\ ^- -- "…

/ s "- / \ ■* / ■^ \ , -- ■-- -- -- s ~ / ■-- -- -- -- --> -^ ' s y \ ^ W. J. Cunningham, in the Railway Age Gazette Fig. 122. Passengers and Employees Killed and Injured in Train Accidents for All Railroads in the United States. (From Quarterly Reports of the Interstate Commerce Commission) Curve A. miles) Curve B. Curve C. Curve D. Curve E. Curve F. Passenger …

It is unfortunate that there is so much difficulty in obtaining paper liaving the logarithmic ruling in one direction and the arithmetical ruling in the other direction. The arithmetical ruling in one direction is essential for statistical work, since we must ordinarily plot as one scale data representing years or other subdivisions of time. In statistical work we cannot well use a paper havin…

\ \ / eo eo / so / , N*^ / / «o \ / / \ ^ \ / / k ^ \ ^ \ ' \ ^ j \ / \ \ \ ' to \ ) ! __j u W. J. Cutiiiingham in Railway Age Gazette Fig. 123. Passengers and Employees Killed and Injured in Train Accidents for All Railroads in the United States. (From Quarterly Reports of the Interstate Commerce Commission) Curve A. miles) Curve B. Curve C. Curve …

It is, however, desirable to have the bottom line either at ten or some power of ten on the vertical scale and engineering supplies. A person doing statistical work for which paper with the logarithmic ruling is desirable may occasionally have to rule his own paper. This, however, is not an impossible task especially if one has a slide rule. The spacing of the lines can be copied from either…

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Book Value of Material on Hand for a Large Eastern Railroad The logarithmic scale is particularly valuable for an operating chart such as this when there is a great difference in the size of the figures which must be compared. The lower curve here averages about $60,000 while the upper curve averages about $1,100,000. The logarithmic scale permits accurate comparison of various curves to determ…

If charts similar to Fig. 124 are used, the executive can tell instantly whether the stocks in different departments or of different kinds of material are increasing or decreasing simultaneously and proportionately. "To summarize -- with the ordinary arithmetical scale, fluctuations in large factors are very noticeable, while relatively greater fluctuations in smaller factors are barely appare…

proportionate number, voltage, and candle-power of various types of standard incandescent lamps delivered in different years by the New York Edison Co. are shown in a series of vertical bars which are all of the same length, representing 100 per cent. No statement is made or implied in regard to the total figures, which may have increased or decreased from year to year. x\ll we are…

To show that the chart is absolutely limited to the height representing 100 per cent, we use a broad line for the zero line and another broad line at the top for the 100 per cent line. Instead of showing the percentages at different decades by the method of shaded bars used in Fig. 125, the vertical lines representing decades are first marked with points dividing the lines into component parts…

The percentage for foreign vessels can also be read for any decade by using the reversed scale, in which zero is placed at the top and 100 per cent at the bottom. Though a double scale is scarcely necessary on a chart as simple as Fig. 126, it is frequently desirable to have a double scale. Another very striking wall chart is shown in Fig. 127. Here as in Fig. 125 the chart was framed, but …

Industrial Accidents in Different Months of the Year Compared with the Hours of Stmlight Each Day in Different Months According to Weather Records for New York City in 1 9 1 o Twenty-four hours in a day are shcmi as 100 per cent divided between darkness, semi-darkness, and sunshine. Curves showing accidents for three different years liave the same general shape as tlie upper curve representi…

The similarity of these curves, showing the number of fatal accidents per month, to the curves showing the percentage of darkness, is intended to convey to the person seeing the wall exhibit, the truth of the statement at the top of the chart, that "an abundance of light tends to prevent industrial accidents." Though Fig. 127 is a very commendable and effective piece of work, it should be poi…

Though it is fairly easy to see in Fig. 128 what the changes are which have occurred in, say, the item for "General" expenses, it is not at all easy to determine the changes which have occurred in the item for "Conducting Transportation." The eye cannot measure correctly the increase or decrease in width of any area as great as that representing the item for "Conducting Transportation," especi…

shown in the title, or preferably on the chart itself, that the sum of the heights of all the curves given on the chart is constantly 100 per cent as indicated by the broad line at the top of the chart. The reader will then know that if any one curve on the chart goes up, some other curve or curves must come down in order that the 100 per cent line may remain straight and horizont…

As in this case a large part of the construction work was finished, the actual number of accidents in the construction department dropped to almost nothing, and, because the shaded area for construction grew less, it was necessary that the other areas should widen out if the 100 per cent line at the top were to remain a straight line. Here the weak point in the method of charting is the same …

Where great fluctuations occur from time to time and many factors enter into the total, it is best to draw charts in the form of Fig. 129 with a common zero line, or in the form of Fig. 131, where each factor has its own separate base line, or in the form of Fig. 132 and Fig. 133, in which the lines on the chart represent actual quantities rather than percentages of an aggregate or total sum…

Percentage Distribution of the Expenses of Operating the Raihroads of the United States. The Combined Height of All the Curves Shown Equals 100 Per Cent on the Scale This illustration represents the same data as Fig. 128. Here the percentage for each expense is read from the zero base line instead of from one to the other of the fluctuating lines on either side of an area. This method, thoug…

1911-12 1912-13 Fig. 130. Percentage of Accidents Occurring in Each Department of a Large Industrial Plant. Plotted Monthly by Twelve-month Averages By this method, with a consteint width to represent 100 per cent, any great change in any component affects all other components. Here the decrease in construction accidents causes the areas depicting other accidents to increase in mdth, even th…

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For a more complete discussion of Figs. 130 and 131 and of the contrast of methods followed in preparing them the reader is referred to pages 142, 143 and 146 GRAPHIC METHODS the fluctuations in the accidents of any one department over a long period of time. As accidents never occur with any regularity, curves representing the actual number of accidents are likely to fluctuate a great deal. …

The data for Fig. 130 and for Fig. 131 were plotted on the of giving, monthly, the average number of accidents in each department during the last twelve months for which records were available. Actual figures in tabulated form were used to show for immediate reference the number of accidents in any month. The curves on the twelve-months average basis were consulted to determine whether there …

In Fig. 133 the straight line at the top of the chart does not have any significance, as it is due only to the co-ordinate ruling which serves as a background to the chart itself. The important part of the chart ends at the top of the shaded area. We may consider the top of the whole shaded area as a curve and read the values accordingly from the scales on the right- and left-hand sides. In f…

Note the use of dimension lines in combination with the scales 148 GRAPHIC METHODS The use of engineering dimension lines in Fig. 133 is of interest, for the dimension hnes add considerably to the clearness of the drawing. In the center of the chart the vertical dimension lines on both sides of the names for each area show distinctly that the chart must be read on the basis of the vertical d…

With cumulative or mass curves, such as are considered here, each point on the curve represents a total output up to the time for which the last point is plotted. The figure for each successive period of time is added to the total already recorded, and the new total point is plotted. Because the figures relating to the last unit of time are always added to the total figures already recorded, c…

In a conference betw^een the sales, engineering, and manufacturing heads of this business, it was decided that the quantity of automobiles desired was fifty per week until the first of April, then sixty per week until the first of June, and seventy per week thereafter, giving a total production of three thousand two hundred automobiles for the whole season. It w^as thought that the rate of prod…

Note the co-ordinate paper of letter-sheet size and the scheme for marking off weeks and months so that any fiscal year may be shown on this standard ruled paper from the engineering department, the factory was able to ship practically no cars during the month of January, though the schedule shows that one hundred and fifty cars should have been made that month. During February, the factory pr…

During the latter part of March the factory not only got out its quota of cars each week but produced more than its quota, making up a little for the distance it fell behind during the first part of the year. Owing to a lack of material, because of a fire in a factory which supplied the crank shafts for the automobiles, not a single automobile could be shipped during the second week in April…

The factory turned out much more than fifty cars per week during the latter part of May and was rapidly catching up with the schedule, until the supply of accumulated parts was used up and the assembling departments were limited to the rate at which parts could be produced in the machine shop. By making every possible effort in the machine shop, the weekly rate of seventy sets of parts was e…

The schedule line was accordingly changed from the second week in October, by drawing the line so that it came out at three thousand five hundred cars at the end of the year. It will be noticed that, though the factory had a setback due to delayed material in the second week in October, it was able to exceed the new schedule during the early part of November and it made the three thousand fiv…

Thus the modified cumulative curve may be used to show the quantities of stock on hand, additions to stock being plotted upward and reductions to stock being plotted downward. Any point on the curve then shows the ciuantities on hand at that particular time. In making a curve like this it is ordinarily the practice to strike a balance of the additions and reductions for the latest period of tim…

Though the co-ordinate lines are distinct enough for ease in reading they are not nearly so conspicuous as they would be if a line cut had been used instead of a half-tone. In making a line cut, the green lines of the paper must, of course, be printed as black and the color value of the green lines is entirely lost. The finished line cut shows only the relative widths of lines, not relative c…

It must be remembered that cumulative curves always refer to some definite length of time and that they must always begin at the beginning of the period for which the summation is made. Cumulative curves do not extend outward indefinitely, but start over again at zero with each succeeding period of time. Thus, cumulative curves plotted by months or weeks on a long sheet of paper, for a series…

A moving average could then be shown continuously so that the average would always take in twelve months without having to start over again at the beginning of the second fiscal year. The information in Fig. 135 would have been more simple in appearance and more quickly apprehended if it had been given on two separate sheets of paper, the daily average curve and the suggested movingaverage cur…

It is much easier to see fluctuations if the amount outstanding is plotted in this way from the zero line than if one must gauge the amount outstanding by reading the space between two fluctuating cumulative curves. When data must be read by the length of vertical lines between two curves, the eye is likely to take as the distance between the curves the shortest distance instead of the distanc…

Carload Shipments from a Manufacturing Plant Two separate fiscal years are compared on the chart. The right-hand scale shows monthly averages of the number of carloads shipped per day of factory operation. The double-line curves for daily averages and the dotted-line curves for progressive averages are read from the right-hand scale. The heavy solid-line curves are read from the left-hand scal…

Fig. 137 shows in detail for the same loan department the operations which are summarized in Fig. 136. In Fig. 137 the heavy line shows the actual amount of money loaned each month, while the dotted line shows the amount of money paid back each month. The data for these two curves were later added month by month on a cumulative basis and plotted into the two curves, "Loaned" and eooo ISOO I…

Total Loans Made to Employees by a Large Industrial Corporation and Total Amount Paid Back, Shown Monthly Since the Beginning of Loans The two upper curves are plotted on a cumulative basis. The bottom curve shows the amount outstanding and is equivalent to the vertical distance between points on the two upper curves. The capital devoted to loans is indicated, and the chart permits easy read…

This relation of two curves to each other, with the peaks of one curve following at some definite distance behind the peaks of another curve, is generally referred to as "lag." Students of economics are continually finding curves which are seen to have a very great dependence upon each other when "lag" is taken into account. If "lag" is not considered, a great difference in the shape of the cur…

\ -'/ < ,,«.< ^^-- T*or o«5- of_55 '■'- -^ II- -''' '/ en %, ff iJ! E no leo uio I70 izo Uk I i k I \ i t I t I iAi Includes a * loo loan Fig. 137. Loans Each Month Made to Employees of a Large Industrial Corporation and Amounts Paid Back Each Month. Number of Accounts Opened and also Number of Accounts Closed Are Shown on a Cumulative Basis Note how the curve for repaymen…

After the two curves have been plotted separately to carefully selected scales, they may be superimposed and read through both sheets of paper held in front of a bright light. xVs the horizontal scales for the two curves are the same, it will be found, if the curves depend upon each other without the element of "lag." that the peaks and valleys will almost coincide. If there is "lag," it will …

In Fig. 137 the growth in the importance of the loan department can readily be seen by considering the twelve-months progressive moving average showing the average total monthly loans. Though there is, in January, 1912, a very high peak which overshadows all other peaks, the general tendency of the curve is still rapidly upward, because of the fact that a number of high points follow each oth…

It also shows that since numerous accounts are being closed, the loans are being made to other employees rather than being repeated continually to the same employees. Fig. 138 is a study made to determine the size of tank necessary to supply sufficient boiler-feed water for a number of locomotives and tugboats. The average amount of water used each day by all the locomotives combined is give…

'^ Ln :ru££j 10,000 5.000 r / ^ =°^ ia-- -•- -*-- r £ ■ > * s n. 3 ■* s > « I a z. : > ^ P. a s 10 •> r; Fig. 138. Cumulative Curves Plotted to Determine the Minimum Size of Tank and the Minimum Steady Flow of Water Required for a Group of Locomotives and a Group of Tugboats Taking Boiler-Feed Water from the Same Source of Supply Curves for locomotives and tugs are p…

In order to see what would happen if the locomotives and the tugs should take water from the same tanks, the combined curve was made for both locomotives and tugboats by adding the quantities for each one-hour period. The easiest way to make a combined curve when only two curves are to be combined, is to use a pair of dividers, taking the vertical distance above zero for each point on one cur…

c5 -r ^ be ^ -tj rt rt rf o o t; .. . . §■020 CUMULATIVE CURVES 161 distances stepped off by the dividers locate the new combined curve so that it can be quickly drawn in. The combined curve in Fig. 138 shows at a glance that the locomotives and tugs together take water in such manner that the greatest rate of flow from the tank occurs between six and eight in the morning. One problem …

Thus, if from the point on the line for 40,000 at which the diagonal line intersects the vertical line for five a. m., we count 10 blocks horizontally to the right, we see that it takes 9.1 blocks before we again reach the diagonal line. Nine and one-tenth vertical blocks correspond on the scale to 45,500 gallons of water flowing in 10 hours, so that the minimum steady rate of flow must be 4,…

Between six and eight a. m., when the amount which can flow into the tank through the regular flow-pipe is limited to the cpantity indicated by the dimension mark "B", the draught on the tank is so rapid that all of the water indicated by the dimension mark "A" must be furnished by the storage capacity of the tank itself. The water does not flow into the tank nearly so fast as it is taken out…

The measurement of the greatest distance which shows between any depression in the consumption curve and the minimum-flow line which joins the peaks on either side of it gives the minimum steady rate of flow. There is great practical value in charts like Fig. 138. In this case the minimum-flow line determines the size of the pipe, pumps, or other machinery which must be installed to provide …

In Fig. 139 the method is nearly identical with that used in Fig. 138, except that in Fig. 139 we are determining the greatest possible rate of uniform consumption from a fiuctuating supply, instead of determining the smallest possible rate of uniform supply for a fluctuating consumption. In Fig. 139, the lines beginning at the hump in 1870 are drawn at different angles to touch the different …

Though engineers have used curves for many years to represent data relating to the laws of physics, the engineer has made practically no use of frequency curves such as are used by the biologist. This is probably due to the fact that the engineer can determine the laws of physics from mathematical computations based on a relatively small number of observations, while the biologist must deal with…

The heights of the different piles show the relative frequency of shells having the different numbers of ribs. Seventeen-rib shells were found much more commonly than shells with any other number of ribs. K a line were drawn through the tops of the different shell piles, we should have a frequency curve FREQUENCY CURVES relating to the frequency with which different characteristics or items ar…

There is a fairly large number of shells in the pile for sixteen ribs, and a somewhat greater number of shells in the pile for eighteen ribs. Though it is unfortunate that no horizontal scale or vertical Fig. C. B. Davenport, in Popular Science Monthly 141. Forty University Students Arranged in Rows, According to Stature by Inches, as follows: 56 to 57.9, 58 to 59.9, 60 to 61.9, 62 to…

A glance at the photograph taken looking down on this group of men shows that there are more men shorter than the most frequent height than there are men taller. If an ink line were drawn as a smooth curve to represent the outline of the whole group of men, when arranged in rows as shown here, the top of the curve at the end of the longest row would be called the "mode", as it would show the …

Frequency charts are sometimes made for popular illustration by drawing vertical lines to represent the number of individuals found in each class designated by the horizontal scale. Thus, a representation could be made for the data of Fig. 141 by having a horizontal scale to represent heights, and drawing vertical lines to a scale by, which the length of each vertical line or bar would re…

The Number of Persons Working On and Above the Sixth Floor in the Cloak and Suit Industry and the Dress and Waist Industry in New York City This chart was made first for a wall exhibit and was later used in a widely distributed report. The co-ordinate ruling has the shape of a New York manufacturing building. By observing this illustration from the left edge of the page the reader may get …

In order to see the general shape of a frequency curve when plotted with flat tops instead of peaked tops, the book may be turned so that the illustration is seen from the left-hand edge. This chart was drawn primarily as a wall exhibit, to be used later as an illustration in a printed report. The general scheme is excellent and it could scarcely be improved upon, even though the independent …

Frequencj^ curves are very often used, however, with numbers rather than percentages represented on the vertical scale, and the vertical scale then shows the actual number in each class. To assist the reader, the total number of observations made would usually be recorded, perhaps in the title of the illustration. In biological work observations are usually made in vast number, to permit ma…

of sufficient number to permit the formation of any general laws. Thus for Fig. 143 we are not justified in saying that-all college women marry at the particular ages indicated by this chart. The number of women taken into consideration for the preparation of the chart was not sufficient to allow any final conclusion, certainly not to justify any general statement that college women are less l…

Compare the upper chart with Fig. 145 In biological work the number of observations taken is ordinarily sufficient to permit drawing a smooth curve to represent the general law, after a chart drawn with numerous straight lines has been made by the method used in Fig. 143. It would not be desirable to draw a smooth curve in the case of Fig. 143, as the smooth curve would be misleading becaus…

In the Atlas, colors were used for the different areas which must be represented here by cross-hatching. Though these illustrations hold some very valuable and interesting information, the information is contained Per CenT lOO ^"^^^ "^^ \ ARRIED i ^y -y^ ^^ -^'^^;- "*"''*'"^^..^^^ \ \/ / ^^t^ ) "^ \ /\J / \ .>^^ \ 5?/ .f.C3 y 1 J / ^N ^i)^^-^ -,p-0_^,x--^ ^, J 1/…

The information sought is the percentage at different ages for each of the sexes, and this must be read from the horizontal scale, in violation of one of the most important rules for graphic work. Another bad feature of the chart is that data for male and female are shown in the right and left direction from the center line, making it almost impossible for the reader to compare the figures for…

It would appear that many widows must be reporting themselves as single instead of as widows, or the chart would probably not be so different in shape from the chart for the aggregate population of the United States. In Fig. 145 the scale for age has been properly placed horizontally and the scale for percentage placed vertically. The whole population is considered as single under the age of…

In this chart, however, we are considering three things, and the chart shows the percentage who recorded themselves as married, rather than the actual age at which marriage occurred. The percentage of those who report themselves married is affected by the number who are single and also by the number who are widowed. If in the later age classes, deaths of husbands occur more rapidly than marria…

As the husbands are older than the wives, the expectation of life for the husband is, of course, less than for the wives, and the number of widows at any age is far in excess of the number of widowers, on this account alone. Industrial accidents, war, etc., also tend to make a high death rate among the men and cause more widows than widowers. In Fig. 145 the curve for men has been labeled "wid…

This selection of horizontal distances makes the curves into much more nearly their correct shape than is possible on the Census Office chart, where five-year and ten-year class intervals are shown by equal scale distances. Perhaps the greatest gain made in clearness in Fig. 145 is due to the placing of the curves for male and female on the same ruled field, so that they can be compared inst…

The chart was drawn to bring out the data clearly and, if clearness is not attained, the data might just as well be expressed in columns of figures. Here again the variables have been reversed and the independent variable improperly made the vertical scale. In Fig. 147 the data of Fig. 146 are redrawn into two curves by which the number of deaths occurring at different ages can be readily GR…

-- _ 3-4 ^H^^H ■i 1 - Z ^ ■ = = tf g ■ y ^Sg a g s ^ = ^ ^ lZ -- -- United States Stalislical Atlas, 1900 Census Fig. 146. Comparative Proportion of Deaths at Different Ages from Pneumonia per 1,000 Deaths from Pneumonia in the Registration Area of the United States, 1890 and 1900 The right-and-left arrangement of this chart makes comparison for the two different years…

If the chart had been made the full width of the page it would have been possible to get room enough to show the figures for single years at ages under five by using a space only one-fifth of the horizontal distance used for the five-year intervals. The large number of deaths at ages five to nine inclusive is very striking on the curve. Possibly the large death rate from five to nine may be d…

It is not until after a considerable amount of puzzling that one notices that the triangles have absolutely no significance and that they are only a means of showing the distance from the base line to the various points representing decrease or increase. It would have been better if plain black bars had been used for Fig. 148 instead of the triangles. Bars are so familiar to everyone that t…

/ ^ y^ / ^. \ / y • -- oo \ >!> / / '/ \ '/ ^ \ s "- <00 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I + <0-NO^inOiDOiooinoinoinoinOinOinOin Fig. 147. Comparative Proportion of Deaths at Different Ages from Pneumonia per 1,000 Deaths from Pneumonia in the Registration Area of the United States, 1890 and 1900 Comparison of the two years can be made instantly throughout the…

Though Fig. 149 might not attract deep interest on the part of a newspaper reader, it would not be likely to be misinterpreted. Fig. 148 might serve to attract attention, but what is the use in attracting attention unless a correct impression is given after attention has been attracted.'* Frequency curves thus far considered have permitted reading from the vertical scale only the actual …

In Fig. 143 the percentage who married at each age is given in figures at the top of the chart. By observing the figures at the top of Fig. 143 and the figures at the top of Fig. 150, the method for plotting a cumulative frequency curve will be apparent. Beginning with the percentages for the later ages in Fig. 143, the figures for the various years are added cumulatively to give the figures s…

Putting the data in the form of a curve like Fig. 151 lets the stockholder see at once just what conditions are on his road, in so far as rail weight is concerned. Thus, in Fig. 151, the stockholder may see at a glance that a very small percentage of the rails on this railroad weigh in excess of 75 pounds per yard, and that only about half of the rails weigh niore than 70 pounds per yard. In …

The increase in deatti rates for ages over forty is here showTi in great contrast with the decrease in death rates for ages less than forty. The hea^"^' zero line and the arrows pointing upward and downward make misinterpretation almost impossible It would have been better if Fig. 151 had, at the lower left-hand corner, the words "more than", with an arrow pointing horizontally to the right a…

Thus, in considering the weight, roughly 6 per cent of all the rails on the system are more than 75 pounds per yard, and using the right-hand scale it is seen that, roughly, 94 per cent of all the rails are "less than" 75 pounds per yard. There is not ordinarily any necessity for using a double scale in this manner. It is done here only to show the difference in reading a two-scale chart.…

Percentage of 439 Married Graduates of Mount Holyoke College (Women) Graduating 1890 to 1909, who Married at Ages Greater than Any Specific Age Selected from the Horizontal Scale of the Chart This is a cumulative frequency curve plotted from exactly the same data as Fig. 143. The word "over" with the arrow at the lower left-hand corner of the chart shows that the chart does not indicate the…

In Curve "C" it can be seen that only 30 per cent of the calls of that class were answered in less than four seconds, as against 60 per cent for curve "A". Though curve "A" is higher up on the chart than curve "C", it really represents a smaller length of time required to answer telephone calls than shown by curve "C". Since twice as large a percentage of the calls were answered in "less tha…

Weight of Rails per Yard in the Main Line Track of the Seaboard Air Line Railway as Published in the Annual Report to Stockholders for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, When using the left-hand scale the chart is read on a "more than" basis as if the words "more than" had been used with the horizontal scale as seen in Fig. 158. If the right- , , . 1 1 1 ■ ■ 1 hand scale is selected the words "…

In Fig. 152 the curves show the time required to answer calls in different cities, while Fig. 153 shows a comparison of answering times in different classes of service. Notice that in each of these two charts it seems that two seconds is about the minimum which can be expected in answering telephone calls with the existing types of equipment. Fig. 153 certainly gives in excellent manner the …

The chart, however, is likely to be very misleading, as it has been plotted by methods which are not in accordance with usual practice. The variables have been reversed, and the independent variable has incorrectly been made the vertical scale. Besides that, the vertical scale reads downward instead of upward. In all kinds of curve plotting it is common to have the two scales begin with ze…

These curves start at the lower left-hand portion of the field and trend upward, showing that they are plotted on a "less than" basis. Curve A shows a smaller time required to answer calls than Curves B or C, yet the actual position of Curve A on the chart is higher than either curves B or C. If cumulative frequency curves are plotted on a "more than" basis the position of several curves on a…

The position of the curves one above the other would lead the reader at once to think of the upper curves as showing higher wages. Here the upper curves do indicate the higher wages, but they would not do so if they were plotted on a "less than" basis instead of on a "more than" basis. Though it may cause some confusion at first, it seems desirable as a general rule that cumulative frecpency …

I ^ ** 3 / - i a\a^ t Z* T ,*' / ^^ I t J -I 4L .t X-t / - -If--,' 1 . ^ ± JL 3 „ „ ^ Vnswering Time of 1 1 \ A OPERA! ORS &TouL Recording Opers. Ui -L ,„„ 1 / / t -To// fie tording Operators under Supervision ill 2- * withcut If A- - No overload i t B- t -T C- r 1 t 1 L I c ^ t~ -- f - Li T. _._:: Courtesy of W. S. Gifford, American Telephone & Telegraph Co. Fig-…

;ent i ''LASf ilFIET "KLY EART IINQ5 //i :n y// 111 y ''' f ^r r ,' ll y / / ll > / 1 p I ^ / /' / '// ' i>^ / / f' 1 1 ^^^^ // ' / / -^' "^ /// ^ :-r' .-< // / / (0 / ,^' ' 1 / f • Z <" /."■ ^^^^ c // <3 // ^ '^ / 111:1 >- o >y ^x:^' ■ Q '/ / ^ xy /•? ^, Ul / 1 ^>7 ^" // rf i "/ ..</ 1 / / / a / j 1 / / t 7 / / y / …

: ALA5 Courtesy of Factory Fig. 154. Comparison of Earnings of Men Wage Earners in Different Portions of the United States in 1905 This chart is almost hopelessly confused because the scales have been so arranged that the two scale zeros appear at the upper left-hand comer of the chart instead of at the lower left-hand comer. The vertical scale reads downward when it should read upward. See …

Only 62 per cent of these laborers make more than $9.00 per week and but 80 per cent of them get more than $5.00 per Pen Cent lOO 7 8 9 10 12 15 WEEKLY EARNINGS - DOLLARS .. .^. r- United States N.Atlantic ■■ o . S.Atlantic N. Central .-- .-- . s. Central Western Alaska Fig. 155. Chart Showing What Percentage of the Wage Earners in Different Portions of the United States Receive More th…

This chart could have been improved if the words "more than" and an arrow had been placed at the lower lefthand corner on the general scheme of Fig. 158 GRAPHIC METHODS o WAGE COMPAHTSON IN VAEIOUS DEPAETMEHIS. Feroent. O 56 O 4 c 96 « o •J "»l \ _L <^ _ ^ *«s - -- 7^" -- -- -- -- -- -- _ _ -- _ _ : ^ -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- \ \…

Comparison of Actual Weekly Earnings in Different Departments of a Large Industrial Plant Showing Percentage of Men in Each Department Receiving More than Any Specified Amount of Earnings per Week This illustration was made by photographing directly from the universallj' ruled paper shown also in Figures 57, 103, 130 and 134. The scales and the different titles were put on the paper with a typ…

Since all the laborers were paid the same rate per hour, the only possible explanation of the fact that a large number of men earn as little as $5.00 per week must be that the laborers were not employed continuously. More continuity of employment for a smaller number of laborers would, in this particular case, have resulted in more money being paid on an average to each man, so that the men wo…

That some of the foremen receive as low as $6.00 per week and that only 93 per cent of the foremen receive over $11.00 per week is due to the fact that some of the men were off because of sickness or on leave of absence. If the attendance of these men were more regular the curves would not have such a decided peak at $11.00 per week. Though Fig. 156 has been plotted on a "more than" basis, the…

No of Percent & Pieces No orOrders 2000 100 \ \ \ \ \l \ \ \ \ "'^ \ ^^ \ ■ ^ y V^ ^ \ '-"'^ ^\^ •^ c ^ -^ ^^ -.^ \ V'^ ""-^ X \ ^^^ / \ \ '' ' -- ^ / ^^ \ \ ^ ■ ^^^ / "^ ■ ^^ ^-^ D ^^^ .. ' -- ~ . =^»-..,,_ ** 5 10 15 20 25 75 100 Size of Order in Number of Pieces Fig. 157. Cumulative Frequency Curve Study of the Number and the Size of All Orders Hand…

from the right-hand scale Curve "C" shows by small circles the total number of pieces (or packages) carried by the various orders which are found in each group. Curve "C" is read from the left-hand scale Curve "A" shows the percentage of the total orders handled which contain more than any given number of pieces considered on the horizontal scale of the chart Curve " B " shows the percentage …

In handling large quantities of freight the different orders cover many diverse kinds of material, and the jobs vary from one package up to many thousands of packages on one order. The pieces or packages referred to here may be anything from a single casting weighing 20 tons to a shipment of canned goods with 5,000 boxes or cases on a single shipping order. In the long run, however, the differ…

After the orders have been separated into piles, it is a simple matter to count the number of orders in each pile to obtain the data from which curve "D" is plotted. It will be noticed from the shape of the curve that the upper and lower limits for each class are well selected so that there is a fairly uniform decrease in the number of orders in each group as the size of the orders increases…

Though there are not so many orders of large size as of small size, the small numbers of large orders nevertheless carry many more packages than the large numbers of small orders. The executive is, of course, interested in revenue and, for revenue purposes, as mentioned above, all packages may be considered of the same size. Revenue obviously depends upon the number of packages handled, rathe…

We can see instantly that, because of the large number of small orders, only 22 per cent of all the orders handled were larger than twenty-five pieces per order. Only 13 per cent of all the orders handled exceeded fifty pieces per order. Also, by reading from the vertical scale opposite the figure for 50 per cent, we can see at once that only half of all the orders handled carried more than t…

Curve "B" thus shows that, though there are not many large orders, about 69 per cent of all the revenue comes from those orders which contain more than twenty -five packages. Fifty-six per cent of the business (and the revenue) is due to orders containing more than fifty packages. Twenty -nine per cent of all of the revenue comes from orders containing more than one hundred packages, yet none…

Since clerical work depends chiefly on the number of separate orders, the manager would be able to reduce his clerical work on this particular class of orders somewhere near 45 per cent if he would refuse to handle orders of less than ten packages, and, by such a decision, he would lose only 9 per cent of his revenue. For most businesses, it would pay handsomely to neglect entirely 9 per cent…

When it is seen what a large amount of clerical work is involved in handling orders which produce only a small portion of the revenue, thought could be given to the methods of handling small orders so that the small orders may not cause any more expense than absolutelj^ necessary. Usually it is possible to handle small orders in a different manner from the large orders, and, if the true situat…

Though these orders of over twenty -five packages do not involve a large amount of clerical work, they nevertheless bring in such a large percentage of the revenue that any dividends from this particular department must probably be paid from the revenue brought in by orders in excess of twenty-five packages each. The general methods used in plotting Fig. 157 have been considered at rather gr…

Cumulative Frequency Curve Study of the Number and the Size of All Orders Handled During One Week in a Certain Kind of Freight-handling Work Carried on in Two Closely-related Departments Curve "H" shows by small circles the actual number of orders found in each size-ot-order-elass. Note that at the left of the chart there are numerous orders shown in each class even though here the limits of …

One sub-department of the business handled the orders portrayed by Curve "A" and Curve "E". The other sub-department handled orders portrayed by Curve "C" and curve "G". The combined work of the two departments is shown by Curve " B " and Curve " F" The percentage of the total number of orders handled in each of tlie two different departments, up to any size of order read on the horizontal sca…

Department stores might also have use for charts on the general plan of Fig. 157. Different departments could be considered by the number of orders of various sizes. As the margin of profit in different classes of goods in different quantity sold would be fairly well known, the manager could get a good idea as to how much of the time of his sales force was occupied in handling small orders, a…

In Fig. 153 it was shown that, because the curves were plotted on a "less than" basis, the curve showing the smaller length of time appears at the top of the chart, when one would naturally expect to find the smaller quantities of time recorded relatively toward the bottom of the chart. In Fig. 158 the data are plotted on a "more than" basis, and the curves are seen in their proper relation t…

chart shows that the department to which curve "G" relates handles a larger percentage of the total number of packages and produces a larger percentage of the revenue than the department to which curve "E" relates. If this chart had been plotted on a "less than" basis instead of on a "more than" basis, the position of these two curves giving detailed information for the main curve "F" would b…

These lines would not appear this way if a piece of paper had been torn out of a large-size chart. The curve lines should have continued up to the break in the drawing more nearly on the slope seen in the left-hand portion of the chart. The lines for curves "G", "F" and "E" would, if correctly made, show much less slope also at the right of the break where they lead down to the lower corner …

Though this method of averaging all orders together without respect to the size of the order is sufficiently accurate for many purposes, there are times when such a method may gravely mislead an executive. It is almost invariably true that small orders cost more per unit of output than orders of large size. A man who makes a selling price for his work on the average cost of small orders and l…

On some days all the orders for one commodity might be small orders, and on the next day a very large quantity of that same commodity might be handled all in one large order, so that a gang of men could work steadily all day on that one order. Naturally if a large gang of men work all day on one order, the cost per package handled would be very much less than if several different gangs were …

The co-ordinate paper for the chart itself was mounted on three layers of corrugated straw-board, having the ribs of the middle layer at right angles to the ribs of the two outside layers, as described in Chapter XII. A binding of gummed cloth -tape around the edge of the board gave a neat appearance and assisted to preserve the boards during rough service and long use. These boards were very…

B -= Distribution of packages C -- Average cost per package for orders of various size <i \ / \ ' \ J, y / / • • / ' • > \ • / 9> ; % • / / * * / / •f / • y / > / ® / / ^ /'* / • ^_ ^ _ r •«• <0 •t to N -- < ^«. 4* .oOOOOOOOOOOO tf^oa)a)t»<o<o^co(M -- • • • r • • 1 . ■ <» - • ; .' • • • • / .1 • ® <£ li f • •* •• f.J .…

The cost per package would be figured up for each order ticket and, in the board reserved for that particular commodity, a tall pin would be placed for each order completed the preceding day, showing by the position of the pin the number of packages on the order and the cost per package of handling that particular order. In considering the pin marked 8 at the right of Fig. 159 we can see that…

Thus, a superintendent seeing a board of the kind described would know that on the preceding day those orders had been completed which in Figure 159 are shown by numbered dots. His attention would be drawn at once to the orders represented by dots numbered 4, 5, 6 and 8. These dots show costs much above the average cost recorded for orders of those sizes. The cost clerk could furnish the ord…

The chart brings out this information very clearly. Since the superintendent can take the matter up with the various foremen before noon of the day after the work was completed, the foremen soon get the feeling that the superintendent knows what the cost should be, and, if anything happens to prevent work being done cheaply and quickly, the foremen are likely to report the conditions at once …

The ordinary type of tall pins or tacks used with wooden boards would not be at all satisfactory for this class of work, as it would be impossible to work with such boards containing thousands of tacks without knocking the tacks loose, so that they would be in a continuous process of becoming lost -- much to the detriment of accuracy and to the disgust of a cost clerk. The short glass-head pi…

Thus, if any particular campaign were made to reduce the cost for small orders by handling small orders on some different method from that previously used, the pins near the left-hand side of the board might appear considerably lower down on the chart than the pins of the color which had been used in the six months preceding the change in method. When the board gets so full of pins as to make…

In the upper portion of Fig. 159 is shown a summary chart of the data contained on the pin board itself. Curve "C" is a smooth curve drawn through the center of gravity of all pins on any vertical line which shows the size of order. It will be noticed that the cost decreases very little when orders become larger than three hundred packages, but for this particular commodity with the methods o…

Assuming that a loss occurs on all orders shown on Fig. 159 up to the size of one hundred and fifty packages per order, the number of dots to the left of the line for 150 on the horizontal scale indicates just how great the total monetary loss would be. Curve "A" in Fig. 159 shows the percentage of orders which contain more than any specified number of packages selected on the horizontal sca…

In Fig. 160 is shown a chart which may help to make clearer the general principles used in drawing the charts seen in Fig. 157, Fig. 158 and Fig. 159. Fig. 160 shows the appearance of the curves if there are the same number of orders in each class or group and if all classes or groups are of uniform size. It makes no difference in the shape of the curves how many orders there may be …

In Fig. 159 the reader may easily see for himself that there are many more small orders than there are large orders, because the pins are largely concentrated toward the left-hand side of the chart. It is this concentration at the left-hand side which has so greatly affected Fig. i6o. Chart to Show the Theoretical Shape of Cumulative Curves for the Percentage of Total Orders and the Percenta…

If there is not the same number of orders in all groups or zones the curves will take some other shape and the shape will depend on the peculiar distribution of orders as may be seen in Fig. 157, Fig. 158 and Fig. 159 FREQUENCY CURVES the shape of curve "A" and curve "B" in Fig. 159. By comparing Fig. 160, we can see that if the distribution of orders in Fig. 159 had been uniform, curve "A"…

^/ ,. ' ^ ^ , Fig. i6i. Curves to Show the Percentages of the Total Population of Prussia in 1892 and in 190 1 that Received Various Percentages of the Total Income as Considered on the Horizontal Scale L. <u E60 <to 50 0) O40 / / / / • •7' f / / / / :/ .•/ / / ^ 30 40 50 60 70 Percents of Total I ncome 80 90 100 EQUALITY PRUSSIA 1892. PRUSSIA 1901 M. O. Lorenz, in the…

It would then be simple to compute the income of each group as a percentage of the combined income for all groups. The resulting group percentages would be plotted cumulatively as the dependent variable on a chart for which percentages of population would be the independent variable. Fig. 161 unfortunately shows the independent variable used for the vertical scale. A better arrangement may be…

In Fig. 161 we have the curves for two widely separated years plotted side by side, so that we may tell from the general shape of the curves whether the distribution of wealth is approaching uniformity of tending in the direction of great concentration in the hands of a few people. The more nearly the curve approaches a straight line the more nearly wealth is distributed uniformly among all th…

The dotted line is drawn through points on the chart for data furnished by the manufacturer as his estimate of good practice A curve of this general type, proving a close relationship between two variables, may be called a correlation curve CORRELATION 199 members of the population. In Fig. 161 the hne was more bowed in the later year than in the earlier year, and the conclusion may accordin…

Thus, considering the two dots which are given for trucks of 2,000-pounds capacity, it will be noticed that both of these dots are far below the position on the chart which one would expect the average to occupy if one should judge by the general tendency of the curve as a whole. It may have happened that the particular trucks which these two dots represent were run with very light loads, thu…

A manufacturer of machinery has recently revised many of his manufacturing and selling policies from the information obtained from a chart showing the relations of cost and selling price of his equipment to the actual size of the equipment. On the horizontal scale of charts used for this study the size of the apparatus was shown according to its actual working capacity. In a vertical directio…

Some sizes of apparatus were particularly suitable to the public, and on these sizes the quantities were much larger than on other sizes. The sizes more commonly sold were naturally better equipped with jigs and tools than other sizes, and for that reason the cost was lower than would otherwise be expected. After the cost curves had been thoroughly studied for different kinds of apparatus, th…

After sufficient observations had been made throughout the whole range of the horizontal scale, smooth curves were drawn which would most nearly represent the various dots plotted. In drawing curves of this kind, care should be taken to have each portion of the curve as nearly as possible at the center of gravity of the dots in any vertical section of the chart. Accuracy is not necessarily ob…

Velocity of circulating- "water -=ft. per sec. '~^1\ Geo. A. Orrok, in Journal American Society of Mechanical Engineers Fig. 163. Relation of the Rate of Heat Transmission to the Velocity of the Circulating Water in Surface Condensers Correlation charts of this type have sometimes been called "shot-gun diagrams " The investigator makes a dot for each observation recorded, and then judges fro…

Care in shifting the irregular curve will permit drawing a clean, smooth curve line, even though the irregular curve used is quite different in shape from the curve line which is drawn. • o^ -^ -^ ^ ^0 ■ 9 ^ ^ ea ^ -- o Z^ ^(b ^o ^^ -' 52 63 54 55 56 57 59 59 60 61 62 63 64 6S 66 67 60 69 70 71 7e Noiher't Span (=1/) in Inches. Karl Pearson in "Blometrika" Fig. 164. Correl…

Curves like those seen in Fig. 163 are properly drawn as smooth curves because they are based upon some definite laws of nature. It is only because of the crudity of the observations of mankind that the dots are so widely scattered. If human knowledge were sufficient to obtain measurements with exactness, curves for data relating to the laws of nature would fall exactly on points plotted accor…

By using the straight lines instead of the smooth curves to connect points, the reader is warned that the chart represents facts as found, rather than facts which are assumed to be in accordance with any definite laws. Where smooth curves are proper, as in Fig. 163, it is feasible to have a mathematical formula to represent the shape of the smooth curve. As the determination of mathematical .…

There were naturally fewer observations at either end of the chart, for the very small spans and for the very large spans, than for the intermediate spans. It was probably because of the small number of observations at either end of the curve that the dots there are so far away from the curve line. If more numerous observations were taken it is probable that all the averages would fall more …

whicli the dots fell. The upper edge of the cross-hatching shows the maximum of the incomes, and the lower limit of the cross-hatching shows the minimum of the incomes reported for different years after graduation. The reader can thus get the whole story at a glance without being confused by the complexity which would result if all the dots were shown. Attention should be called to the fact…

This general method is a worthy one closer to the bottom of the shaded area than to the top of the area. This fact shows that, though there are several graduates getting high salaries much above the average income, nevertheless, if all of the dots were shown, most of the dots would fall below the average line rather than above the average line. A few extremely large incomes near the maxi…

With few observations it might be desirable to show dots on the chart to actual scale rather than in classes by tens. Ordinarily a line drawn like the heavy wavy line in Fig. 166 would be so placed that the points on the line would be at the center of gravity for the dots vertically on either side of the line. Here, however, the line is so drawn that there are an equal number of dots on eithe…

In the case of those girls who do well in both English and arithmetic, there seems to be improved facility in the field of arithmetic. ao f V) < I- bJ £ ■I ~~^ \, ■ • • •. ■ ^ ■ 7A ^/ ^^ -<\ \ / • ^ .•.. \ • • • ! ^ \ '.'.'. "■ :■:::; / / \ ^ii: ^ . . . ........ /] 1/ : ^ \ ■ y. / J. :-:^ \ \ :::;::• j^ '^ -* ■*: •vx. \ ii --^=i • i lO O …

Though Fig. 167 appears to represent a soHd model, there was in reahty no sohd model made in order to obtain this illustration. By using isometric paper a chart like Fig. 167 can be made with comparatively little work. Isometric paper has lines ruled on the paper right and left at an angle of 30 degrees to the horizontal. By selecting a vertical scale to portray by separate columns the number …

of the arrows CORRELATION 207 The reader should note carefully that the scale arrangement of Fig. 167 is entirely different from that used in Fig. 166. In Fig. 166, the two zeros fall together as they ordinarily should do in chart work of this sort. In Fig. 167, however, the two scale zeros are not together and the reader is accordingly prevented from interpreting Fig. 167 directly from the…

The number of beads on each wire can represent to scale the data for the particular square at the center of which the bead wire is placed. The heights of the columns of beads on the different wires would then show clearly the facts for any one section of the field in a manner similar to that of Fig. 167. The beads would probably be more generally understood by an untrained person than the isom…

It is always difficult to get non-technical persons to take an interest in proposals which are shown only by blue prints and ordinary maps. Architects realize this so well that it is common practice among them to submit carefully prepared wash-drawings to show the appearance of the building for which they are submitting plans. Most engineering work cannot be easily represented by washdrawings…

If maps must be printed in a report, a book, or a magazine, it is usually necessary, on account of the high cost of color printing, to use some arrangement of black ink for shading those areas which on a single map would ordinarily be colored by hand. Fig. 169 is a sample of what can be done without the use of color. If the drawing is made considerably larger than the finished illustratio…

a. o TO ^ 0/ o IJ ~ 3 a 6 ti o (D o o n 1-1 ft> i-i a. p crp ^ n W !-*> tt! o So ' fp o 1-hO en o p* o tr cr o GRAPHIC METHODS Plains Engineering Record Fig. 169. Drainage Area of the Canadian River, New Mexico Areas of different kinds may be distinguished on maps by various classes of shading when color printing is not available expense. Sometimes only one m…

The main difficulty with the celluloid method is that the inks will rub off if the celluloid is handled too much with moist hands. Ease of erasure has some advantages, however, for tentative schemes can be rubbed out or changed at will, simply by using a damp cloth. After the final adoption of the plan, tracing cloth can be laid over the combined map and celluloid sheet, and the important fe…

The relative proportion can be indicated best when care is taken to have the several areas drawn to the same scale and placed in a good position for comparison. Fig. 171 is shown here only as an example of the almost unlimited range which the application of graphic methods may have. The average person would never think of charting a football game, yet the graphic method certainly gives the in…

The vertical scale of Fig. 173 should have been shown on the chart. The heights stated for different cities give a fair indication of what the vertical scale is and a reader can, if he must, measure on the drawing the height for any city and from that determine to what scale the drawing has been made. As a broad rule, the scale should be indicated in an easily seen position on every cha…

chart like Fig. 174 so that the facts which it is desired to prove may be brought out clearly . Numerous methods are available for presenting such data. There is no general rule for determining which method is the best, and judgment must be used to choose the method w^hich is best fitted to each individual case. Note that in Fig. 174 we have a scale reading to quarters of a mile, and w…

Country Gentleman Fig. 172. Dates for Planting Com, Showing How the Season Advances in Different Parts of the United States This illustration is similar to the well-knowB weather maps on which lines are drawn through all points where conditions are the same Railroad Operating Costs, Suffern & Son, New York Fig. 173. Profile of the Pennsylvania Railroad from Jersey City to Chicago. The Tab…

The scale given with the map permits the number of cattle for any State to be read fairly accurately. The degree of accuracy depends upon the map size selected, and upon the number of dots used to represent any given quantity. The more dots used the greater the accuracy. There is. GTaham Romeyn Taylor on "'Satellite Cities" in the Survey Fig. 174. Map Showing that Factory Workers of Norwood …

In Fig. 176 it would not be feasible to use a much smaller circle if the quarter-circles are used. MAP PBESENTATIONS Country Gentleman Fig- 175- Relative Distribution in the United States of Cattle Other than Dairy Cows For popular presentation, if great accuracy is unimportant, this method of illustration would be difficult to improve upon. It is not possible to get a correct comparison bet…

If an outline map of suitable size is available, the only hand work necessary for a cut of this kind is in drawing the small circles and placing inside them the figures serving as key numbers for the shading used. The actual shading is done by the engraver making use of the Ben Day process. For information regarding the preparation of engraver's copy for plates on which Ben Day shading is de…

The key scale at the lower left-hand corner of the illustration shows that the different shades do not become darker by any uniform increase in horse power. The range included in shade number eight is 50,000 -- from 50,000 to 100,000. For shading number two, however, the range is 3,000,000 -- from 4,000,000 to 7,000,000. This numerical scale was badly selected, for the steps vary so greatly i…

If the steps in the shading scale had been so made that there were nine increasing classes of shading, each representing 1,000,000 horse power, it can be seen that all the States here numbered five to nine inclusively would have the same shading. Such a map made with a scale of uniform steps would appear so entirely different from the map shown here that no one would ever recognize the maps …

On a map of the kind seen in Fig. 177 there may be any number of different shadings, from one to a dozen or more. In order to simplify matters for the reader it seems best to assign the smaller numbers to represent those conditions which are considered most desirable or commendable. The reader may then see instantly which areas are first, second, third, etc., in rank simply by observing the …

The cut was made by photographing a page of the Census Abstract which was printed on rather rough paper. With an original cut made directly by the Ben Day process the distinction GRAPHIC METHODS between the different shades would be considerably clearer than it is in Fig. 179. A cut of this size and complexity is rather expensive when the Ben Day shading is used. Anyone wishing a cut made wi…

The vertical dimension of the group of bars for each district shows the relative total number of houses. The horizontal dimension shows the relative number of houses of each height by stories up about half of the whole United States. A uniform scale varying by $25 per acre would give an erroneous impression regarding those important areas which contain land valued at less than $25 per acre but…

Methods of Marking Maps When an Increased Density of Population May be Expected in Following Years Each shading can be made by adding with a pen to the shading used for the next lower density. Pins of different colors placed in a map have an advantage over this scheme in that pins can be removed if population density should happen to decrease limited by the fact that there is no key scale sho…

If it is not necessary to photograph the map, pins with different colors of heads may be used to show density of population. There is one very great advantage in using pins instead of crayons or the pen-and-ink system , of Fig. 181. It sometimes happens that an error is made which may spoil a very valuable map because of the impossibility of erasure. When short pins are used instead of crayo…

The object of the illustration is to show the necessity of a road system that will feed from the farms to the densely settled portion, permit the quick and easy transportation of farm products to the cities, lessen the cost of living, and thus justify the taxing of the State as a whole for the construction of this system corrected by pulling out pins. Also, if there should be a reduction in th…

It is rather surprising that maps for such purposes have not been more generally employed. Though the map record sheet shown in Fig. 183 may appeal to some business men, there would seem to be little advantage in that type of sheet over tabulated figures in a column. The column arrangement would have a desirable feature in that different entries could more easily be compared for size by judg…

A blank like this can be filled out daily, weekly, or monthly as desired 224> GRAPHIC METHODS Maps on the scheme of Fig. 184 are made entirely in the plane of the paper itself. In Fig. 185 we have a map presentation in which quantities are represented by building verticallj" above the various routes laid out on the map. For the map of Fig. 185, the vertical representation was made by strips…

A map of this kind is easilj' made and is often of very great utility. The method can also be used to show the number of passengers carried on railroad, subway, or street-car lines, etc. Compare Fig. 185 The method used in the construction of the model shown in Fig. 185 gives magnificent results, but wooden strips are not practicable except on a very spacious map. The wood-strip method also in…

In many cases solder is unnecessary, for the strips may be held vertically by notching each strip halfway through so that the strips can be interlocked in the manner shown in Fig. 236. By using sheet metal a much cheaper construction can be obtained than by wood strips. The sheet-metal method also permits the use of a map of much smaller size and finer scale than would be feasible if wood str…

The cloth tops, however, fade in the sunlight and collect dust so that in a short time the different colors of tacks on any map, exposed as a wall map must be, cannot be easily distinguished. The crudeness of the cloth-covered tack makes it unsatisfactory for many kinds of map work. Cloth-covered tacks are long, and long tacks which can be pushed only a short distance into the surface of a map…

This is a point not realized by most men who install map and tack systems, but it usually sooner or later sounds the death-knell of the tack system. 228 GRAPHIC METHODS Generally the tacks are placed in the maps one by one as agencies are established or as data are obtained from correspondence. After the correspondence by which each tack was located has gone to the correspondence files, ther…

In the ordinary course of human events it is not likely that a tack falling out of a map would be found to give warning that the map record is no longer accurate. The tack system using long projecting tacks may therefore contain unsuspected inaccuracies just because tacks may have come loose. The unpleasant suspicion that a map record may be inaccurate, because of the long tacks falling out, s…

Since the pin is pushed in to its full length, a blow cannot dislodge it. The spherical head in contact with the map gives a very neat appearance, yet the spherical shape permits the fingers to remove the pin by straight pulling without any difficulty whatever. The smooth needle-point of good quality steel does not rust easily and it does not cut the surface of the map. When a pin must be remo…

A wall exhibit like this is easily made by using a red legal seal and red stars such as can be purchased at many good stationery stores way. A wall map on which pins with spherical glass heads are used can be very cheaply mounted, it needs no glass cover, and the pins can be put in or taken out instantly, thus giving a location record which is at all times in plain view, yet thoroughly accura…

The only safe plan is to use the spherical pin head which is in contact with the map surface itself. Photographic views of a sphere are the same from all directions, thus causing all pins to appear exactly the same size and shape on the photograph. Photographs taken of a large map with flat-headed tacks show the heads in the center of the picture as circles, while the heads towards the edge o…

The middle layer should have the ribs running crosswise of the map so that the map mounting will be safeguarded from bending in either of the two different directions. Where very large wall maps are desired, six or more layers of straw-board may be used to give sufficient strength. If single sheets of straw-board cannot be found as large as the map itself, the map mounting can easily be buil…

A layer of the cheapest kind of mushn placed over the face of the straw-board will prevent the pins from tearing the surface of the map if they happen not to be pushed in exactly straight. The use of cloth over the straw-board also permits of changing the pins many more times than would be feasible with straw-board without the cloth reinforcing. .'• /.■ Reoiew 0/ Reiyttws Fig. i88. Every P…

At the same time the map is pasted on the front of the straw-board, paste a sheet of wet wrapping paper on the back of the straw-board mount. The shrinkage of the wrapping paper on the back will eciualize the shrinkage of the map on the front of the mount. Place the mounted map on a flat table surface or on a smooth floor, and stack books or other heavy articles upon the mount over night or …

Exhibitionboard, compo-board, wall-board, or any of the various boards generally used for wall surfaces may be used as a backing to give strength to the cork. Care should be taken to get a good quality of board which will not warp seriously. The cork composition can be glued to the wall-board and then the map pasted on the cork. A piece of wrapping paper should be pasted on the back of the wal…

with a cloth tape as suggested for straw-board mounts, or the whole built up combination may be framed with picture framing but without using any glass covering. The cork composition used should be Vs-inch thick. Maps backed with cork composition and used with glass-head pins having needle points will permit almost unlimited puncturing from frequently moved pins. If the map is mounted on cork…

When employed with glass-head pins having needle points, the drawer cabinets for maps used to route salesman, etc., can have a layer of cork composition fastened in the bottom of each drawer. The maps are then glued to the surface of the cork composition. The drawer cabinets regularly found on the market have sufficient drawer depth to permit placing a ^^g-inch layer of cork composition in the…

If numerous glass-head pins are to be put into a map at one time, the eraser in the end of a lead-pencil should be used to push the pins down until the heads touch the map. Pins can be very quickly located if only their points are pushed into the map by hand, leaving the main pressure to be applied by the lead-pencil eraser after a number of pins have been located. The pencil-eraser method save…

MAPS AND PINS Photographs for hne cuts must have a good contrast of white and black, or colors which photograph as black. Photographs or original drawings containing shades of gray will not produce good line cuts and frequently cannot be used at all for the zinc engraving process. When line cuts are to be made from pin maps it is best to be certain that the glass-head pins are selected in col…

Another advantage of half-tones is that different colors of pin heads are represented in the half-tone by different shades of gray, as can be seen in Fig. 191. On the left half of Fig. 191, fourteen different colors of glass-head map pins were used. The photograph Avas not retouched in any way. Fig. 191 thus represents about what can be expected of different colored pin heads for contrast in …

The maps are very low in cost and yet are remarkably accurate. Fig. 191 was GRAPHIC METHODS MAPS AND PINS 237 purposely photographed at an angle of about 45 degrees. As the upper part of the illustration is out of focus because of the angle, the illustration does not do justice to the Government maps. Another reason why the map does not come out clearly is that brown ink is used to print t…

Maps on which large areas as States, or counties, are differentiated by the use of colors red, orange, green, etc., do not produce either good line cuts or good half-tones since the colored areas on the original maps are likely to show as solid black areas and blot out all detail on the photograph. If an illustration must be made from a map it is well to be sure that the map is printed in bla…

As maps are very carefully copyrighted by most map publishers, maps which are copyrighted should not be reproduced without consideration of the copyright. For maps which are photographed down with comparatively little change, permission should be requested from the map publisher, to make certain that unpleasant complications such as damage suits or the holding up of a publication may be avoide…

In Fig. 193 a map was used in which there was more detail than really necessary or desirable for a clear illustration. In justice to the General Electric Review it must, however, be said that the map shown in Fig. 193 has been reduced in size and made smaller than it was in the original print. This map could not be reduced further without danger of completely losing the pin heads in the gray …

Location of Water-Power Developments of 1,000 Horse Power, and Over, and Power Sections of Streams in the United States The original of this map would have pins in two different colors. The photograph taken from the map would be retouched by the use of a pen so that squares would replace dots for one of the two colors of pins. The illustration shows a contrast of dots of two shapes rather than…

After a photograph has been made of the pin map it is best to compare the photograph with the original, and then to make squares out of those circles which represent a certain color of pin on the original map. Squares are easily made by using a fine pen on a photograph considerably larger than the cut itself will be. When the final dots are not too small in size it is possible to make shapes…

It is not easy to find maps with lines sufficiently heavy to permit of the great photographic reduction usually necessary in making illustrations from pin maps or other map representations. Quite often it is necessary for the person making a map chart to go over by hand all outlines such as borders and the divisions between States, counties, etc., to make those particular lines very much heavi…

In order to tell how much reduction in size is made by the glass at any given distance, it is possible to look at the original object with one eye and through the reducing glass with the other eye so that by superimposing the two images their length may be compared. When a chart has ruled lines, as co-ordinate lines, it is a simple matter to superimpose the images from the two eyes so that on…

It must be remembered, that most of these pins were in the characteristic blue colors commonly associated with the Bell Telephone System, and, because blue is almost impossible to photograph, the pins do not show out as strikingly as they would if other colors were used. The black splotches on the map were caused by the predominance in those areas of pins with dark blue heads. When this pin …

This map, costing several hundred dollars to produce, could be injured severely by a few strokes of a janitor's feather duster. If short pins were used with spherical heads in contact with the map there would be no danger of the pins being misplaced. Another disadvantage of the long steel pins is that the steel portion exposed to the atmosphere is likely to rust, especially in cities near salt …

Such an illustration can, however, be made by using pins like those shown in Fig. 196, or like pin No. 20 in Fig. 199. This latter MAPS AND PINS No R-R. Cap. Bbls. per day 1,BOO ?. H«LDEaBERa Cem. Co . . . Howo Can, N. Y . ., D. A H.R R AJfloo.N. Y . N. Y. C 4H. R N. Y. C. 4 H. R. N. Y. C & H. R. L. V. R R 4,300 . Hudaon. N. Y fj . . . Portlaad Poial, N. V 1£00 f Wayland, N.…

B.40.a.B.... Penn.R. R L.S.iM.S. . . C, H. V. 4 T . . . . C.H.V.iT N & W •36,600 3,600 18. Chesceht Port. Cem. Co JBncKBORN Poet. Cem. Co Diamond Port. Cem. Co ^ ., ?4 AlmaCi.me.vtCo Lehiok Port. Cem. Co YohkPort Cem Co Wabash Port. Cem Co 2.000 •3S.60O L.S.& M.S..;. Penn. R. R ._... C. I. &L B.iO.R.R..., .. B. 4 0. R R 28. Lehigh Port. Cem. Co LoLiiflviLLE Cement Co Kos…

Below the Map Is a Tabulation Giving the Name, Address, Capacity and Shipping Raihoad for Each Plant A pin map like this can be quickly made up by using pins such as are pictured in number 20 of Fig. 199 or pins such as are used in Fig. 196. An outline map with the pins can illustration like the above pin has black figures on a white background, and does not give as striking an effect as …

GRAPHIC METHODS case of emergencj\ One prominent manufacturer of locks for bank vaults uses a map Avhich shows at all times the location of each of some fifty bank-lock experts who are routed from city to city each day by telegraph. The locations of the pins, and the railroad lines represented on the map, show instantly which man can best be sent to any bank which reports trouble regarding th…

Even the mention of railroad tracks in the title does not make up for not showing them on the chart. In preparing Fig. 198 a scale was very carefully selected to use one dot to represent a definite number of people so as to avoid having dots crowd each other too closely on the map. A map of this kind could be made in a very large size, and then be reduced photographically to a MAPS AND PINS …

In Fig. 198 each dot represents two hundred people. A dot in the suburbs may therefore represent all the people in one square mile of territory. If a map were first made with two hundred dots for the two hundred people, the one dot actually used on the final map would have to be placed not at the geographical center of the area represented, but at the center of gravity of the two hundred dots…

Long pin with glass head used in conjunction with a piece of sheet celluloid cut into the shape of a flag. William D. McAbee in the Survey Fig. 197. Relative Soot Deposits in Indianapolis, March, 1912 The greatest soot tall is in the vicinity of railroad tracks Carefully selected samples of snow were melted and the soot of twenty-four hours weighed after the water was evaporarated. Spot map…

The size of the various beads and pins can be determined by measuring on the above picture with an ordinary ruler, as the articles are shown in their exact size 4. A celluloid flag, with beads above the flag to represent quantity, or beads in different colors to denote various characteristics for the data portrayed. The grip of the sheet celluloid on the pin is sufficient to hold both the beads…

Beads in various colors of a size to correspond with the map pins in No. 8. Here the beads were red. White beads, used for every tenth position, show at a glance that there are 22 beads on the pin. Note that the color red photographs as black. 10. Map pins having sharp needle points and spherical glass heads in contact with the map. The pin is of the same general style as No. 8 but it has a …

Since both sizes and colors may be varied, and almost any number of beads used on one pin, there are practically unlimited possibilities for the showing of complex data. 16. Beads on a pin which holds down on the map a sheet of colored celluloid cut to the exact shape of a small land area to which attention is directed. 17. A sheet-celluloid marker held by a map pin like that seen in No. 8…

Map pins and tacks of this sort placed upon the surface of a map can give a spot map with any desired diameter of spots, no matter what size of map is used or what the amount of photographic reduction may be. It is simply a question of selecting from the spherical heads, 8 or 10, and the flat heads 18, 22, and 24, to determine which size head is best suited to the size of the original map and …

Pins having red letters on a black background cannot be used for photographing, as the red letters would photograph black and disappear entirely, leaving a solid black circle instead of a circle with figures. Since pins with a black background and white figures are not commonly obtainable, it may occasionally be necessary to use pins like No. 20 in Fig. 199 having black figures on a white back…

Allen, Dodd, Mead & Cu. Fig. 200. Sources of the First 3,000 Letters of Appeal Sent to Mrs. E. H. Harriman. These 3,000 Letters Asked for $70,000,000 Eight different kinds of pins were used on this map to represent different kinds of appeals. Long pins like those seen here are apt to fall out of the map, and thus destroy the accuracy of the record. Note the area around New York shown on a larg…

When there are several units in a town, the beads strung on a long pin or wire can be counted quickly if a bead of a different color is used for every tenth bead, so the whole column may be counted by tens as possible in Fig. 201. A bead map like Fig. 201 should be mounted on several layers of corrugated straw-board to allow the long pins sufficient depth in the mounting to hold fast. For thi…

If long columns of beads must be used as in Fig. 201 for New York and Boston, the beads may be strung on piano wire such as may be secured in any good hardware store. The piano wire should be heated in a gas flame so as to remove some of the spring temper. After the wire has been heated it can be straightened and it will remain straight without continually springing back into coil form. 252 GR…

The men of the group portrayed who reside in foreign countries are indicated by pins near the seacoast with arrows pointing toward the country of residence. The fact that there were large numbers of the men in Massachusetts made necessary an extremely long wire for the beads of the Boston district. Because of the small size of the finished illustration and the size of map available, large diam…

The bead wires for New York and for Boston were accordingly pulled entirely out of the map and the map was photographed without these two bead wires. The two bead columns were drawn in by hand on the surface of a photograph measuring 8 inches across the base of the map. With a little care, using a fine-pointed pen, bead columns such as these can be drawn in so that the ordinary observer woul…

On the fire map the height of the multi-story loft buildings in which the difi^erent factories may be found is indicated by using one bead for each floor. Thus, in some of the taller buildings, twenty stories are indicated. Different colors of beads according to the fire risk or the sanitary defect to be shown mark the stories very plainly, and the heights of the bead columns show the heights …

WITH the exception of the railroads, there are relatively few businesses which make a practice of plotting curves to show operating records in convenient form for the use of executives. Railroad accounting is more highly standardized than accounting in industrial corporation work. The standardized method of accounting has made it rather easy to compare the operating records of different railr…

By the method in the lower part of the illustration the plotted line more closely approaches a true curve, there is much less variation in the direction of the lines from month to month, and the general trend of the curve line is easier for the eye to grasp. Compare the two curves for the summer months of the year 1909-10. In the upper curve a series of steps, and in the lower curve an almos…

Another disadvantage of the method of steps with flat tops as compared with the method using slanting lines and peak tops, is seen when two or more curves are so drawn that they intersect on the same sheet of co-ordinate paper. Curves plotted with peak tops can be drawn very close together and yet be fairly distinct from each other, as will be noticed in many of the illustrations in this book…

, . Courtesy of Factory Fig. 203. Lubrication Cost per Ton of Product for a Factory in the Year 1908 The figures at the top of the co-ordinate ruling give the data from which the curve was plotted. Though data should be put on all charts, figures arranged in the direction here shown are not in convenient form for addition. See the later illustrations in this chapter for methods of placing fig…

If a peaktop method of plotting is used, numerous curves may be run across the same sheet and yet be distinct enough for identification even when all are reduced to uniform white fines on the blue print. It would be easy to name fifteen reasons why the method of plotting with peak tops is superior to the method of plotting with flat tops. The advantages of the peak-top method seem so obvious …

The resulting value for the point is ordinarily more or less inaccurate, depending upon the scale to which the curve is drawn. Not, only is the reader's time taken in estimating the value for any point on the curve, but when he gets his result he is dissatisfied, for he cannot feel that the figure obtained is really accurate. There is a great advantage in showing on a chart the figures f…

Here the data of .January, 1913, are indicated by a dot rather than by a line. The change occurring from December to .January is not easily seen. This difficulty can be easily overcome by allowing an extra space for one month as in the following illustrations CALENDAR YEAR !|I3 ° Bureau of Railway Economics, Washington, D. C. Fig. 204. Monthly Revenue, Expense, and Net Revenue per Mile of Li…

At the beginning of the card we repeat the line for July, so that instead of showing a dot when the August figures are plotted w^e are able to draw a line showing the change which has occurred from July to August. In general, it is good practice to use one more vertical line than there are points to be plotted, so that the last point on one curve, sheet or card may be repeated on the next cur…

Cards for different years can easily be looked over and the yearly total figures compared instantly, to the great advantage of the executive who has these additions made for him and recorded where they are always in plain sight. Curves as they were used in the past gave the values of single points only, without any summation for a series of points. In Fig. 205 we have not only the yearly tota…

By repeating the point, however, and not repeating the figures, the curve is made continuous without any danger of adding too many items into the total. In the right-hand margin of Fig. 206 a vertical green line may be seen. This line may be used as the shank of an arrow to indicate, as CURVES FOR THE EXECUTIVE -> sx o +• < > V) in IVo'fiCb'l OOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOq 3 0. " 6^0 d d (…

If the curve is to show expenses per unit of output, the head must be placed on the vertical line so that the arrow will point downward. In Fig. 206 no head is placed on the arrow, as fluctuations in a payroll mean nothing unless we know the output of work. An increasing payroll may result either from increasing sales or from inefficient production. A decrease in payroll may result from incr…

The paper commonly used becomes brown and brittle within five or ten years, so that records on such paper are likely to be useless in a comparatively short time. The high-grade paper used for record cards as are shown in Fig. 205 and Fig. 206, contains only the finest selected linen stock and is guaranteed absolutely against any deterioration for twenty years. The chief advantage of this paper…

machines cannot be run slowly enough to give the required length of exposure. Some of the older machines can be changed at rather slight expense so as to have an extra belt-pulley reduction between the motor and the blue-printing machine itself. The newer types of machine can usually be run slowly enough to give the exposure necessary for this special paper. If a new blue-printing machine is …

It is impossible for anyone to predict what conditions will come up in the future of a business, and the only safe plan is to install from the start such a curve-record system that any card may be duplicated by blue-printing in future years if desired. It frequently happens that an executive wishes to have a blue print made of a recent year's curve card to compare with the curve card of an e…

The space toward the left-hand side of the cards shown in Fig. 205 is for remarks which may be necessary to explain different fluctuations in the curves. In Fig. 206 full circles along the curve show those weeks in which a full holiday reduces the amount of the payroll. In the month of x4pril there was, for this particular plant, a half-holidaj' on the nineteenth. This is shown by a half circl…

An example of the kind of information which should be noted on the curve-card margin came up in a large public-service company, where the manager was for several minutes unable to explain a very great fluctuation which had affected the earnings of a trolley company some two years before. After careful study to explain the drop in the curve, he finallj^ recalled that this trolley line was in a …

Though weather conditions have affected the curves quite largely, we can see, by comparing the curves for 1910 and 1911, that probably conditions of management as well as weather conditions caused smaller shipments in November and December, 1911, than in those same months of 1910, when shipments were quite good. The card for 1912 is shown with the curve incomplete, just as the manager might …

s i n ; 3eo^ooo V/i 2.40,000 •& %IO.OOO S* O ISO.OOO ■);j- ISO.OOO ■5? J20.000 ^ 90,000 c &o,ooo I 3o,ooo ^ ._ \ /" -- " S. / „-• ^- -^ r 8 9 10 II 18 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ^ Zio.ooo ^ ?<ao,ooo -^ ^10,000 1 80,000 ■J Q 190,000 ^ iZo.ooo ■J 90,000 c 60,000 ■| 3o,eoo ^ ^ / *" S^ y r ^ ^-^ ^^ / \ /* „,„ 7S9IOIIIZI £34667 * "a-ao.ooo (^ 2/40,OOo -? '2.10,000 3 …

for the last month of the preceding fiscal year instead of using a dot as shown in Fig. 204. The separate cards for different years, which in Fig. 207 are arranged vertically one above the other, may be laid horizontally as in Fig. 208. Here the cards are superposed on a black background, the left-hand and middle cards each overlying the card to the right, so that the curve appears con…

Thus in Fig. 208 it is much easier than in Fig. 207 to see that sales dropped seriously in the first half of 1911, and that they increased far beyond any previous record during the last half of 1911. The vertical arrangement is useful for one purpose : the horip . '^ q: u- p p-i to isil ^ UtOU p p ? P p p p p J b b 1 oooooooooo ', QOOOOQOOOO A (9 w ro u 109. aze \ \ \ ' ^ …

When the cards are arranged horizontally the figures for the curve over a series of years are in plain sight, while in the vertical arrangement one card hides the figures on another card. Figures are essential to the true interpretation of curves like those seen in Fig. 208. In looking at Fig. 208 most readers are likely to feel that the business of the year 1911 was much better than the busines…

In the latter half of the fiscal year, sales increased so rapidly that men had to be hired in large numbers. Inevitably, therefore, many unskilled men were obtained who were sure to spoil a large volume of any output requiring the great accuracy needed by automobile parts. The record for the fiscal year ending 1911 was in every way bad, as compared with that for the fiscal year 1910. The compan…

CURVES FOR THE EXECUTIVE 267 difficult with a loose-leaf book to arrange a system for keeping hundreds of curves in such a way that quick comparisons between any of them can be made. When loose cards are used any card can be compared with any other card instantly, and, if desired, cards for any curve for a series of years may be laid out for comparison with cards for any other curve for any s…

In Fig. 209 we have in the upper curve the actual sales of an automobile branch house selling direct to the automobile user. Notice that the sales in the spring months greatly exceed the sales at any other time of the year. In the first two fiscal years sales were at a maximum in May, while in the third fiscal year sales reached the maximum in April and were fairly large in both March and May.…

It is quite easily seen from the upper curves that the sales for the second fiscal year were much greater than those for the first fiscal year. The total figures, however, show much more clearly the extent of the increase. Because of the excellent sales during the spring months, the curve for the third fiscal year at the right gives the impres- GRAPHIC METHODS 5i os-g-ass ^ •5 ^^. ^ T " ?…

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sion of a prosperous year. Reference to the figures for the total yearly sales, however, shows that the sales for the third year increased only very slightly over the preceding j^ear. When we compare the sales of this branch house with the expenses, we get quite a different story from that read from sales curves alone. The increase in sales from the first year to the second year was very …

No arrow was used in connection with the curve for expenses. 270 GRAPHIC METHODS It was permissible that expenses should go up in the second fiscal year, for the volume of sales increased very rapidly. The cost per unit of sales or the ratio of expenses to total sales had decreased greatly. An arrow pointing downward would have given a wrong impression as the total expenses had increased ju…

There was a profit in all the months of the second year except two, with a total profit of very considerable size, though not a tremendous one compared with the volume of sales, since the profit was only 5.9 per cent of the sales. In the third year the profits were on the ragged edge throughout the whole year except in the three spring months of March, April, and May when sales were exception…

The branch manager blamed the factory because the factory could not deliver a sufficient C][uantity of cars. The factory manager was not to blame, however, as the engineering department (reporting direct to the president instead of to the factory manager) had delayed the design for the new car, and the factory manager was, of course, unable to build a car until he had the drawings. This exampl…

As the curves are in each case accompanied by the actual figures for the value of each point on the curves, it is not necessary that one should be able to measure accurately for points falling between horizontal co-ordinate lines. Instead of consulting the vertical scale to get the value at any point, reference is made to the actual figures above the various points. These figures indicate a f…

It will be noticed, in Fig. 208, that the cards are overlapped in such a way that the right-hand edge of the uppermost card coincides with the left-hand edge of the ruled field of the lower card, and that the zero line is continuous. The extension line drawn at the left of any lower card shows where the extension drawn across the right margin of the upper card is to be joined. Cards may be l…

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Two more spaces were again allowed in 1912 in anticipation of even further upward progress in the curve. As joint lines may be drawn in continuation of any horizontal line on either the upper or the lower card, any amount of expansion in future years may be provided for. The curve cards are small enough to be very convenient to handle and yet they may be joined together in such a w…

Whenever zero is not shown at the bottom of the ruled field, this wavy line should be used. Any card can thus be read independently, with safety so far as its interpretation from the zero point is concerned. When several cards are laid out together, and the zero line is shown on the left-hand card, as in Fig. 211, it is a simple matter for the eye to imagine the zero line extended to the right …

By drawing the left-hand joint line on the later cards above the bottom of the ruled space, and by putting the right-hand joint lines for the first cards at the bottom of the ruled curve field, the series of curves can be made to progress downward to any desired extent in exactly the same manner as the curves in Fig. 211 progress upward year by year. By the use of these joint lines a thoroug…

Scales must usually be made in full size, one-half size, one-quarter size, etc., and it is usually too big a jump to change from one of these sizes to another. The ideal arrangement is to have a supply of co-ordinate paper with different rulings so that when one ruling does not suit, some other ruling may be used. On the curve cards shown in this chapter the horizontal scale is fixed, as the c…

The ruling having vertical spaces of one-sixth of an inch is ten spaces high. This ruling is very convenient for curve plotting on a percentage basis when 100 per cent is shown at the top of the chart as in Fig. 126, Fig. 128 and Fig. 129 in Chapter IX. If, on the tenspace card, each space is used to represent 10 per cent with zero for the bottom line and 100 per cent for the top line of the c…

This would allow the sales to be trebled in volume before the curve would extend over the top of the ruled portion and necessitate a change in scale or a step upward so that the zero line could no longer be shown at the bottom of the card. It is well to start all curves for output or sales at about one-third of the height of the card so as to allow plenty of room for future expansion. Curves…

The engineers' scale in fortieths or sixtieths of an inch gives ten divisions to each space between the horizontal lines on the card and makes it possible to locate each plotted point with a very finely sharpened lead pencil or a needle. Practice, however, proves that there is no necessity for using an engineer's scale in plotting curve points on the cards here described. The man doing the plot…

He need only glance at the figures above any point to learn the value for that point far more correctly than would ever be possible with even the most accurately plotted curve if the value of the point had to be interpolated from the vertical scale of the chart. The vertical scale of these cards on which the figures are given in the upper margin fulfills almost no purpose except that of givi…

■^ w B' if^ o In w ip| V H» ^ "n t^ o' N in e-' d w" « ^ ^o^SAui i^nuu^ ^ o :^ ■^■^■^M <x[jlll, ps:!iJOHJn^ other sources of information. This is straight clerical work and may be done with a pen on one card after another with great rapidity. Ordinary liquid drawing ink is the best for the figures, as the opaqueness of the drawing ink gives better blue prints than are obtainable from…

In Fig. 212 we have complete in black ink the same card which in Fig. 206 is given full scale, using two colors to make the contrast between the green-ink background and the black-ink curve. Though Fig. 212 shows the card in reduced size, it nevertheless gives a very good idea of the appearance of a card suitable for the plotting of records for one year by weeks, making it necessary to have fi…

By referring to the calendar for the year 1911 one may see how the short lines for months are put in. As the pay weeks ended on Thursday, there were only four pay weeks ending in July, but there were five pay weeks ending in March. March 1 came on Wednesday. The last day of March was on Friday. The vertical co-ordinate lines for March show clearly that there were five Thursdays, and they als…

A supply of cards for any year can thus be made up at small expense, without having to have cards printed differently each year just because mankind has not yet made a calendar which always has the same relation between days of the week and days of the month. The scheme of indicating the relation of weeks and months by the short vertical pen marks permits the carrying on hand of a supply of p…

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In Fig. 212 the figures 8, 9, 10, etc., indicating the months, can be printed on the cards and thus leave to be inserted by hand each year only the short vertical markings indicating the relation of the weeks and the months. Fig. 213 shows the weekly curve card used in the records of a dairy farm. The particular curve shown is for a prize Jersey cow which was being very carefully…

Note the diagonal arrangement of the two headings, "Pounds" and "Per cent Butter Fat". This diagonal arrangement is a convenient one as it is easy to read and refers to each of two columns of figures, one column vertical and the other horizontal. A card for each cow as indicated above is worth while in a modern dairy. Individual records are fundamentally necessary to efficient operati…

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As the card 12 inches long is necessary for weekly records, a card of the same size can be used conveniently to show five years by months instead of using five separate 4-by-6-inch cards, one for each year. In Fig. 214, the figures at the top of the card show the CURVES FOR THE EXECUTIVE 281 milk production each month and the total milk production for each calendar year. The notes i…

In Fig. 215 certain peaks in the curve appear to have somewhat similar shape. Thus the peak for 1908 looks like the peak for 1907 until closer examination shows clearly that the low point for 1908 was in July, while the low point following the peak of 1907 came not in July, 1907, but in January, 1908. The waves themselves, although of somewhat similar shape, have peaks at entirely different ti…

Having five separate cards causes the reader to take more time in handling cards in order that he may save mental effort and avoid error in interpreting the yearly waves. Having five years on one card saves handling the cards, but it takes more mental effort to be accurate in reading the curve horizontally. The choice between five cards of one fiscal year each and one card for five years must …

This is an important point for any small business to watch, for it may involve bankruptcy to assume that the particular business is not affected by slack seasons of the year such as affect most businesses. Fig. 211 gives an example of a curve in which a large amount of seasonal fluctuation might be easily seen if the rapid increase in the business did not make the upward trend from increased …

In making comparisons between separate curves there is a great advantage in having a standard arrangement of the five-year cards so that there may be no danger of comparing two curves for different years when it is intended to compare for the same year. It is desirable, as seen in Fig. 215, that all five-year cards should have the years arranged by half-decades. One arrangement includes those…

If the executive wishes to know the general trend of his costs, he refers at once to this fine line and sees what the cost has been for the last twelve months for which costs are known. In making up this moving average (as explained in Chapter VI), one month is dropped from the addition and another month is included in the addition, so that the twelve months added are always the most recent …

It is accordingly good practice to have twelve points included here in making up the moving average, so as to give as smooth a curve as possible. If there had been a complete wave or cycle every six months instead of once a year, it would have been desirable to use six points in the moving average, rather than twelve points. The practice in many offices is to use the last twelve months in makin…

in Fig. 91 it would be following so far behind the periodic record curve that the ordinary reader would not realize that the moving-average curve is really up-to-date. For executive work, the object of a movingaverage curve is not so much to get a smooth curve as to show the average for the preceding year or other period of time considered. Under these circumstances it seems permissible to plot…

The fact that the curves are all put into the same size of space on the curve cards causes them to have somewhere near the same percentage scale of height, even though the actual numerical scales may be widely different. Having all curves on the curve cards thus gives more accuracy and ease of reading than would be obtained if several curves were shown on large sheets of arithmetically ruled …

For instance, if three thousand dollars a year is expended for the labor, materials, etc., necessary in plotting all the curves in an organization, and there are three thousand curves kept regularly, it can be seen that the expense per curve per year will be about one dollar. Therefore, if the man should wish one hundred curves plotted for different data relating to his department, he would b…

The authorization plan here outlined, if any man leaves a corporation, would automatically give his successor an opportunity to consider how much of the curve plotting should be continued on the basis formerly used. There is always a great personal difference in the manner in which executives desire reports prepared. The authorizing of curves periodically gives each executive an opportunity …

This serial number remains the same year after year, even though changes are made in the manner of assembling data or in any other minor details affecting the curve. The serial number is placed at the upper left-hand corner of the card, where it can easily be seen when the cards are filed in card-index fifing cabinets. The cards are identified by the number and year, as may be seen in Fig. 21…

^^^ '^'^'^^'^• ■ ^'^"^^'f"^ '' P^ hand corner of the Fig. 2 1 6. Each Curve Card Plotted Periodically Has a Serial Number. A 4-incli by 6-uicli Record Card is Filed by the Curve Serial Number to Give the Complete Information Necessary so that Anyone May Know How to Collect the Data and Plot the Curve. The Card, Shown Above, Refers to Curve 2678 Shown for Three Years in Fig. 207 and in Fig. 20…

Fig. 216 shows a 4-by-6-inch card such as is used in conjunction with each curve card regularly plotted. The number on this card corresponds with the serial number on the curve card as will be seen by referring to Fig. 205 and Fig. 207. If two or more curves appear on the curve card, a card like that in Fig. 216 would have subheadings such as 2678A, 2678B, etc., all shown on the same card No…

Though information cards like that depicted in Fig. 216 are used principally by the man who plots the curves, they are filed in such convenient location that they may be referred to by any executive who wishes to know the source of the data plotted on any curve card, or who wishes to see just what figures are included and what are excluded in making up any grand totals. The use of the serial…

The executives of our corporations, the men who are mayors of our cities, and the men in active charge of the government of our country are, without exception, the hardest worked men in the world. The stoker heaving coal into the furnaces of an express steamer has a better chance for long life than the man who accepts the presidency of even our best managed railroads and industrial corporation…

The present executives are extremely fortunate in that they had an opportunity to develop themselves at the same time that their jobs grew bigger. What are we going to do ten years hence, when executives who have had such thorough training have all retired or have been killed off by the strain of the job? Where shall we find men with broad enough knowledge and experience to decide, instantly a…

It is perfectly feasible to focus a whole business into records so simple that a trained- man could see, in half a day, all the important tendencies well enough to give an intelligent director's vote. This, too, without a spoken word of explanation from anyone. The records themselves could tell the complete story in every detail if placed in proper graphic form. It is the purpose of this chap…

Of course a special filing cabinet 12 inches wide can be made if desired. 290 GRAPHIC METHODS but it is not really necessary. In a cabinet like that shown in Fig. 217, the original curve cards would ordinarily be filed behind the guide cards showing the factory or selling-house locations, or behind guide cards showing the names of departments in any large business. All the cards for succeedi…

For this reason the original curve cards should be filed by departments so that the complete history of any department may be had from the cards behind the guide card for that department. A large portion of the executive's work, however, involves the study of his general business not by departments but by functions. For instance, the executive may wish to know how many employees he has in his…

RECORDS FOR THE EXECUTIVE this total card would be filed blue prints showing the employees in each department of the whole plant. Thus, if a total card at the front showed that the employees were increasing, the manager could refer to each one of the department cards filed immediately back of the total card to see in just which departments there had been an increase during the last month, an…

If expenses had increased the manager could refer to the departmental or account-number cards and see just which departments or accounts were responsible for an increase or decrease in the curve giving the total. The cards in a large business would be filed by expense-account numbers, with the total card referring to any expense account for the whole business filed at the front of each group…

This feature alone may save a large amount of his time by making necessary information more accessible, and by afi^ording information which may show leaks in his business that he would otherwise never know to exist. In a business of any size the cost of making one blue print each month from each original curve card is almost insignificant. The guide cards showing functions or account numbers…

Though such a room might be combined with a technical library for books relating to the particular art or industry in which the company finds its field of operation, it is advisable to have the amount of furnishings in the room limited so that there may be no likelihood of valuable confidential papers being lost or misplaced. Such a room really needs to have no more furniture than filing cas…

Since the information contained in this room is practically a history of every phase of the business, it would be desirable to have the room enclosed with fire-proof walls and fire-proof doors and equipped with fire-proof file cases and furniture so that the destruction of the records by fire would be absolutely impossible. As good light is essential in such a room, large windows are necessary…

Very desirable information could also be obtained concerning the business conditions of the country as a whole. Since practically every business is affected by the general waves of financial prosperity and depression, a good man in this position could be of great assistance to the chief executive, by carefully studying some series of curves (which might, after long experience, prove to be the…

If a man of the right type were told that he would report directly to the chief executive, and that he would have a confidential position with complete access to the records of every department of the whole business including both manufacturing and selling, he would be quite willing to start the work at a reasonable salary, knowing full well that the opportunities given would soon permit him …

One man can add one more point monthly to several thousand difi^erent curves, and do also a certain amount of the clerical work involved in making up ratios, grand totals, etc. If a record file of curves like that shown in Fig. 217 is once made thoroughly up to date, for any business, it is easy to keep it up to date with only routine work such as any man of even ordinary mental caliber can do…

The record department should be in a quiet place to which the president or any other official may retreat to get completely away from the distractions which are common in his own office because of the telephone and constant visitors. In the record room the executive would be free to concentrate his whole attention on the records of what his business has been doing in the last weeks or months, …

There is an advantage in having one man put all the cards back in the files, as in this way there is less chance of the cards being misplaced in the file than if several different executive officers were to use the cards and themselves put the cards back. It should be stated here that in the ordinary use of curve files such as are shown in Fig. 217 an executive would not need to remove the ca…

Day and Zimmermann, of Philadelphia, are plotting a total of about eight thousand curves, most of the curves on a cumulative basis somewhat as shown in Fig. 134. In order to allow space enough for a cumulative curve (which naturally takes up more room than a curve plotted on a non-cumulative basis), the curves are plotted on cards 8}^ inches by 11 inches, and these cards are filed vertically …

In using the notched-card scheme two notches may, if desired, be placed in the top of each card, thus permitting many more group combinations than would be possible if only one notch were used. The notches may be cut with a special instrument of rather simple construction so as to insure their uniform spacing right or left from the upper corners of the card. A notch in the form of a segment o…

If the drafting office is not near the record room, however, it may be well to equip the record room with an electric blue-printing machine and a small washing tank, so that blue prints of each card may be made without the necessity of taking confidential record cards out of the room. Photographic processes for copying records have recently been much improved. A machine called the photostat m…

The value of the president's time in a large corporation cannot be figured out on the basis of his salary, for it is certainly true that the executives of large corporations receive salaries much less than the value of their services to their corporation. A single "yes" or "no" decision of the corporation executive usually involves a gain or loss in the earnings of the corporation greater tha…

As it may not be desirable to have department heads in a business know anything about the finances of the company as a whole, or anything regarding the records of departments other than their own, it may be best to have the curve cards filed in several drawers with a separate drawer for the cards relating to the work of each department head. If the drawers are equipped with spring locks, each…

When a new man comes into a corporation as an executive or a director, the value of his service to the corporation is at first practically nothing, and he may even for a while be considered a handicap to the corporation in that it is necessary for men who have been associated longer with the corporation to spend a great deal of their time in explaining to the new member the facts relating to t…

With a card-index file of curves and a record department like that described in this chapter, it should be possible for any trained man coming into a corporation as a new director or new official to give a fairly intelligent vote after only half a day's study of the curves, and this too without having spoken a single word to anyone. If the record department and the curves are properly kept, the…

It would certainly make a great difference to any new mayor if he could RECORDS FOR THE EXECUTIVE 299 go to a record room and study a set of curves showing, for instance, the total number of men in the employ of the city year after year under different administrations. He would be able to see over a period of years the number of men in each city department such as fire, police, street-clean…

Councilmen, civic organizations, newspapers, etc., wanting copies of any record card should be able to get blue prints or photographs at a nominal charge of say ten cents per card copy. The New York Public Library is successfully working a plan by which photographs of any page of any book in the library can be provided to readers in a few hours at a cost of only twenty-five cents per page. A …

It is not, however, right that executive officers who must determine pohcies and who must make instant decisions should be forced to base all their decisions on information provided to them only in the form of the accovmtant's standard arrangement of balance sheet and operating statement. The accountant must necessarily take a bird's-eye view of the whole business from time to time, so that …

Most managers are forced to work from the accountants' monthly statement, and their procedure is accordingly to go through the separate operating statements for several months and take off on scratch pads the figures for the items in which they may be particularly interested at the moment. These figures may have to be added together in order to compare a certain number of months this year wi…

The accountant's report would, of course, be filed carefully for future reference purposes if reference is ever necessary, but for the purposes of the executive the curve cards with the figures they contain are sufficient. Not only is the information for any subject shown on the cards as a curve over a long period of time, but the actual figures of the accountant's report are visible in such …

Some managers consider the ratio of indirect expenses to the direct labor in any department of a manufacturing business as an infallible barometer by which each department of the business can be run. They little realize the absurdity of paying too much attention to overhead-expense ratios and the danger to the business of using overhead-expense ratios as a yard-stick by which to measure accom…

It is perhaps worth while to point out here that there is danger in giving too much information and too many facts to executives of small brain capacity who do not know how to use their authority intelligently. Curves such as those described in this and the preceding chapter, placed for the first time in the hands of the executive who does not know the technology or the general underlying pri…

An executive of the right type will soon realize as he uses the curves that he must do the constructive work himself, and that the curves will really have more effect in changing the procedure in his own office than in changing the detailed routine in the departments of his various subordinates. One of the first tasks confronting any modern executive is that of training, on the one hand, his…

A man prepared to show his data in the form of curves, for example like Fig. 157 or Fig. 159, feels that he would have an almost hopeless task to convey the vital facts if only spoken words might be used. The writer ventures to predict that within ten years practically all corporation directors and executives will be able to interpret curves with satisfaction to themselves and with great benef…

Another disadvantage of using lantern slides is the impossibiUty of getting shdes made quickly enough to represent always the latest points plotted on the curves. By using the original curve cards directly in the reflecting lantern there is always a certainty that the picture shown on the screen represents the very latest data which are available in curve form. When these curve cards are use…

If a carriage about two feet long is used, the carriage may be moved alternately from right to left, and while one side contains the cards which are being reflected on the screen, the other side may be loaded with the cards next desired. On account of its length the carriage will hold curve cards for several succeeding years. By pushing the carriage slowly across the lantern the fluctuation …

With this arrangement it will be necessary to take the curve cards from the record room to the place where the lantern is installed. The file for the curve cards (see Fig. 217) had better be ecjuipped with spring locks so that there will be no danger, when the file is carried, of drawers slipping out and spilling the cards. A rod arrangement is never desirable with such cards as these, for t…

He can start talking to his men, and, at pleasure, ask the lantern operator (ordinarily the statistician) for any set of curve cards which may be of interest to him at the moment, or which may be referred to at any time during the discussion. The use of curves on a lantern screen in the manner suggested would entirely revolutionize the meetings of the department heads of a business, or the mee…

By using the lantern, the president could show facts relating to the business much more rapidly, much more clearly, and with greater accuracy than would be possible with any spoken words. The showing of curves would give the directors a chance to check the president's statements so that there would be less danger than at present of a corporation president so choosing his words that, though t…

On the swinging-leaf fixtures a series of curves are plotted giving all the salient facts relating to a group of public-service corporations. Though this type of wall chart is in many cases desirable, there are limitations to the use of wall charts because the number of charts cannot be sufficiently increased to give all the detailed information which is usually necessary. Wall charts are suit…

For the length of one cigar the financier sits in his chair slowly revolving the chair until he has covered the information given on all of the wall charts, perhaps, if necessary, asking a few brief questions of his secretary. Though very little of the financier's time is taken, he is able by concentrated thought on the facts shown by his wall charts to keep in full touch with world finance an…

The bankers and large investors who can preserve in their files annual reports of a corporation over a long period of years probably number less than one per cent of the total number of stockholders to whom the annual reports are sent. It is only in very large, well managed offices that a file of corporation reports is made so that a complete set of reports for a long period of years is avail…

The only way a new stockholder can possibly determine whether he wishes to buy some more stock or sell what stock he already has, is to hunt up some other stockholder or some banker who may happen to have a file of the annual reports over a period of years. Assuming that a complete file of annual reports can be found, most stockholders, if left to their own resources, would be hopelessly con…

Even if the stockholder should know how to make such a cross-index properly, there are very few stockholders who would be willing to give the time and the mental effort requisite to make a tabulated comparison of the kind necessary. The absorption of good securities by the public has increased in the last ten years at a tremendous rate. The Wall Street Journal has compiled statistics of the s…

CORPORATION FINANCIAL REPORTS 309 While the number of stockholders has been increasing, the average holdings of each stockholder have been steadily decreasing, and now average ninety-eight shares. The stocks of the United States Steel Corporation are great favorites among small investors. Taking the stockholders' list, it was found that among one hundred people, chosen at random, only nine o…

To be sure, a stockholder can always get an impartial and valuable opinion from an investment banker concerning the past records and future prospects of any company, but it would be well if the annual reports of boards of directors to stockholders contained material from which the investor could judge for himself to a greater extent. The material included should show the records of the company…

Though Fig. 1 has not been used in any annual report, it shows a type of chart which could very readily be included in a financial report to give complete facts to stockholders regarding complex conditions on which the average stockholder would gather very little information from the kind of corporation financial report ordinarily sent to him. The railroads have used charts in their annual re…

Four distinct subjects are treated in this chart, but the horizontal bars are arranged in such manner that the reader is likely to think there is only one subject. Probably most readers would prefer to turn the chart so that it may be read from the left-hand edge as four separate curves. To a trained reader this information would be much more clear if put in the form of curves like those seen…

The indiscriminate mixture of so many different kinds of bars in one chart makes a complex diagram to interpret, and it is probable that the chart would at least be no more difficult to apprehend if made entirely in the form of curves instead of bars. Though it is true that curves are not understood by some people who can readily grasp the bar method of presentation, there is no use in …

This chart shows by years the per cent of increase over the year ended June 30, 1898, in the gross revenue from the transportation of commercial freiglit, the number of tons of commercial freight carried one mile, and the number of miles run by cars and locomotives in freighttrain service. Locomotive miles include revenue freight-train miles, all mixed-train miles, and helpingtrain miles The…

Omitting the bottom of the chart makes the dividends appear a smaller percentage of net earnings than they really were. Fig. 223 could have been considerably improved, also, if the line showing net earnings were made much heavier than it is seen in the illustration. Year FEB CENT OF (NCneASE OVER 18BS J 4 1 U 1 LJ 1 L L 1 1 -IT ^ -- -- -- Jii_L±.U_,CLLr_LLlii J J Hi 191 I ^L r-f , …

Passenger Service and Traffic on the Union Pacific Railroad and Auxiliary Companies This chart shows by years the per cent of increase over the year ended June 30, 1898, in the gross revenue from the transportation of passengers, the number of passengers carried one mile, and the number of miles run by cars and locomotives in passenger-train service. Locomotive miles include revenue passenger-…

-- -- \ 1 -- -- ■■ ~ ' / / / / \ v -\ / \ \ f \. \ ?(? ■x \ i \ r \ s / \ / / / ' / / / Pft / / / / / i / / j / / / \ _ r- _ wm. i« _ _. / / \ \ \ / \ ;■ / / ' \ / .- ■ _ / -- - -- ■ / / 'T ' ' \ „- - - -^ ■■ / ■ / / ■ ■ \ / ' ^ ^ -. ~ -- *. '- , i- ■ i , . •^ .-:. • _ :j_ _._ ■ , ,…

Dividends exceed net earnings in portions of the years 1911 and 1912, but the total earnings of those years were nevertheless great enough to justify maintaining the dividend rate Though this illustration contains some interesting information, the chart is misleading because the scale does not extend to zero. At first glance, the dividend of 1909 would seem to be more than four times the divi…

The chart shown in Fig. 224 is designed to answer the first question: "Has the earning power of the company been maintained?" In order to bring out more clearly the very important relation between the surplus for dividends and the dividends paid, curves Nos. 3 and 4 are redrawn on a considerably enlarged scale as seen in Fig. 225. Curves No. 3 and No. 5 are therefore identical, as are also cu…

Preferred and common dividends paid This chart and the following charts relating to the United States Steel Corporation arc submitted as a suggestion to show how the annual report of a corporation could easily give comparisons over several years. The space required for the charts is insignificant, yet the stockholders would receive the vital facts in such form as to permit a full understanding o…

A glance at the chart shows that, during 1905-6-7, gross earnings tended to increase faster than operating expenses, which is again true in 1909 and 1910. In 1908 and 1911, it proved impossible to reduce operating expenses to conform to the reduction in gross earnings, with the result that profits were sharply reduced in both these years. In 1912, a unique situation occurs. Curves 1 and 2 run …

The data are depicted here on a large scale so that the relation of dividends to surplus earned may be seen clearly throw the necessary light on this item. The average wages per man in 1907 were $765 per annum, and in 1912, $857. It has been shown that gross earnings in 1912 were less by $12,000,000 than in 1907, yet operating expenses in 1912 were $45,000,000 more than in 1907, being, as th…

The margin was very slim in 1903 SI 6 GRAPHIC METHODS and 1904 and again in 1911 and 1912. As the balance of earnings for the common stock in 1911 was only 5.9 per cent and in 1912 only 5.7 per cent, a continuance for another year of such narrow margin would probably have meant the reduction of the 5 per cent rate, especially in view of the reduced appropriations for new construction and be…

Curve 8 shows that even the panic of 1907 failed to curtail new construction to any great extent. But the poor profits in 1912, coupled with the higher rate of dividend on the common stock, did produce a sharp contraction -- from $50,- 000,000 in 1911 to less than $15,000,000 in 1912-- the latter figure being the smallest since 1902. This, however, is not to be criticised too severely, since …

Up to 1908, curve 9 follows curve 8 very closely, indicating that the new construction was largely paid out of earnings, and not capitalized. Since 1907, there has been a tendency to finance such additions by the sale of bonds. This tendency, if not carried too far, is not open to criticism. One may, therefore, answer the second question in the CORPORATION FINANCIAL REPORTS Dollars lOO. OOO…

Note the large quantities expressed by the numbers in the vertical scale, yet the wide spacing of the groups of three figures makes interpretation very easy i > w / ^ / \ / / ^ / / \ / r > f / «/ \ / // / \\ / / ^^, / / ( / / \ \ 9/ \ \ / / \ \ \ / f / f / • \ \ i / * f \ \ / / \ \ > I / / / \ \ \ // \\ .'/ / \ \ \ '/ \' y…

320, 300, 280, 260, Z40, 2ZO, 200, 180, 160, 140, 120, 100, SO, 60, 40, 20, / ^ / > 10^ / \ / y \ / > r > r ^■^ /^ ' ^ ^^ < 12. ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ y^ , \ '02 '03 '04 '05 '06 '07 '08 '09 '10 'II '12 Fig. 227. Financial Condition of the United States Steel Corporation in Different Years as Shown by the Balance Sheet Curve 10. Current assets Curve 11. Cash ho…

This chart is very conclusive, for it shows a very large excess of current assets over current liabilities, while cash holdings have tended to eciual or exceed the total current liabilities. The balance sheet, therefore, indicates continuous and increasing financial strength. Current assets in 1912 reach nearly CORPORATION FINANCIAL REPORTS 319 $300,000,000, compared with $275,000,000 in 1907…

In studying a language, we begin with the grammar before we try to read or write. In mathematics, we practice ourselves in simple arithmetic before we proceed to the subtleties of algebra and the differential calculus. But it is the grave misfortune of the moral and political sciences, as well shown by Mr. Herbert Spencer in his " Study of Sociology, " that they are continually discussed by th…

This chapter is largely hased on an article prepared at the suggestion of the author by Mr. Pierpont V. Davis, of New York City, and published by Mr. Davis in Moody's Magazine. GRAPHIC METHODS »_^ 1- m w O d '^ Cj « S' a> c-3 o •S'5 ^ =^ .g of ^ 9 s o ^ X! bS •r- 3 sti S »-l c -^ M-l 1) .g o 4J a > o C5 "S ■■vB w ol n1 •4-' ^^- •^ cU 4> O d hn ° i' t3…

When the methods of tabulation are too laborious, not only are the records so extensive as to be in disfavor, but they may occasionally include errors, in spite of the greatest care that can be taken by even the highest grade of employees. Anything which will reduce the amount of mental concentration necessary on the part of persons collecting and tabulating facts, will ordinarily assist in t…

It will be noticed that the card contains different columns of names or numbers and that there are twelve classifications possible in each vertical column in which a punched hole may be made. Ordinarily the different columns are used for different subjects, and the position of the punched hole in each column records the classification of the data relating to that particular subject. ■' . Th…

Cards are sorted for one particular characteristic at a time, so that all cards having that characteristic are obtained for tabulating purposes. After the data on one set of cards have been tabulated, the cards can then be run through the sorting machine again and sorted for other characteristics. This permits using the punched cards over and over again until all of the different data wh…

After any group of cards has been run through the machine the totals can be read off from the counting dials and written down by the operator. Then the machine is ready for some other set of cards. Machines are built with different numbers of counting heads to suit the complexity of the data in any kind of business. By having several counting heads on the same machine, different sets of inform…

It is frequently a great convenience to be able to run through the machines cards for several years back so that comparative statistics may be made. The preservation of the cards makes it unnecessary to dig out the original records. The uniform size of the cards makes it possible to preserve large quantities of them with comparatively little labor. In punching the cards there are certain hol…

The data from the original time slips of the workmen are transferred by the punching machines to the cards day by day as the time slips are turned in. The punched cards can then be sorted by order number and department, so that when each order is completed the total cost of all work on that order is obtained. The distribution of the value of work done by different departments can be had also…

The punched card for each order shows the catalogue number of the product called for by that order, ^^^lenever desired, cards for a definite length of time can be run through the machines so as to sort out all the cards for any catalogue number of product on which a study is to be made. The resorting of these cards by sales districts shows the distribution of the total sales of this particula…

Courtesy of the Tabulating Machine Com-pany Fig. 231. A Completely Equipped Office for Collecting and Tabulating the Operating and Sales Statistics of an Electric-Lighting Company The girls at the left are operating the key punches for punching the cards. A gang punch is shown on the table at the extreme right. In the corner is the card-sorting machine, and the tabulating machine is in the ce…

In work of this kind, it is sometimes convenient to use one of the small-size pocket adding machines of which there are several different makes now on the market. Though these machines are not at all in the same class as the large key-operated machines, they are of assistance in taking off occasional items because they overcome the necessity for putting GRAPHIC METHODS dov/n the items on a p…

A 10-inch slide rule as shown in Fig. 232 is sufficiently accurate for most work, and, as it costs only a few dollars, it should be a part of the equipment of everyone who is doing even the simplest form of statistical work, or who is periodically plotting curves involving ratios or percentages. By using a slide rule the percentage ratios of numbers can be determined almost instantly and with…

Too many otherwise excellent reports contain figures which give the impression of great accuracy when in reality the figures may be only the crudest approximations. Except in financial statements, it is a safe rule to use ciphers whenever possible at the right of all numbers of great size. The use of the ciphers greatly simplifies the grasping of the figures by the reader, and, at the same ti…

For most purposes it would be much preferable to use the round number 16,250,000 instead of the detailed figures which were given in the Government report. The particular report from which the figures are taken is not a tabulation, but a written report in regard to the methods used for packing cotton. Since the report was intended to be read by merchants and planters, rather than by statistic…

If a very large item is not accurate within ten thousand, then it is useless to include in the grand total the three right-hand digits which may be obtained as the result of addition. When some of the items included are so small that they are in tens or hundreds, the addition should be made to include all the digits. After the sum is known then all those digits whose accuracy is doubtful in …

If very large quantities obtained by slide-rule computation are added together with a number of small quantities, the total cannot, of course, be accurate beyond the third or fourth digit toward the right of the largest ciuantity included in the total. The fourth digit may be fairly accurate in the total, because in the process of addition the various figures added would tend to give a close …

The use of the slide rule on many classes of work has a desirable psychological effect, in that it calls attention to the accuracy of the data and assists in preventing unnecessary detail work which it is very easy to drift into if any assumptions of great accuracy are permitted to creep in. The question of significant figures in statistical work and even in ordinary commercial reports is an …

The transparentizing solution is put on the paper with a brush or sponge and then blue prints are made in the ordinary manner. There are several different makes of the trans- * A chapter on " Approximation and Accuracy " will be found in " The Elements of Statistical Method," by Willford I. King published by the MacmiUan Company, New York City. GENERAL METHODS 329 parentizing solution on the…

In a library so equipped it is possible to have a copy made from any page in any book or periodical in the library. In the New York Public Library, the reader need only fill out an order form giving the exact page and the name of the publication from which the copy is to be made, and state the size desired in the reproduction. Usually the copy is available within a few hours, but, if desired, …

With complex drawings it is often difficult to tell whether the lettering and figures are of large enough size to be read easily after they are reduced to the size to be used for printing. By looking through a reducing glass it can be determined at once whether the drawing is in correct proportions. A reducing glass is similar in appearance to the ordinary magnifying glass, but the lens is gr…

Quite often it is desired to change the proportions of some chart so that the ratio between height and width may be different from that of the original drawing. Though the photographic process used in the photostat machine or by the engraver (in making plates for printing) permits a change in size, the same proportions remain between width and height. There would seem to be enough demand to ju…

Such charts sent to many zinc engravers are returned with the statement that it is impossible to make a line cut from green-ink copy. The statement is made in most cases by the engraver without even attempting to make the cut. There is no difficulty in making excellent zinc cuts from copy using the ordinary green ink, and many of the cuts in this book have been so made, as, for instance, Fig…

In order to make areas stand out in contrast, different kinds of cross-hatching put on by hand ruling have been used very commonly. One trouble with the hand ruling is that it lacks uniformity unless done with very great care and to a scale considerably larger than the finished illustration, so that there may be enough photographic reduction to eliminate many of the defects which would otherw…

This requires that the engraver must protect the different portions of the zinc plate by a paintlike covering, and this must be done for each of the different kinds of shading used. It is almost impossible to make any square-inch price rate for Ben Day work because each new plate is a problem in itself. The work is ordinarily charged for on a time basis, the usual rates being from $1.00 to $1.5…

In order to make the zinc plate from which Fig. 233 was actually printed, a red pencil was used for the bottom portion of the illustration referring to Ben Day work. Red photographs as black, and a zinc plate was obtained which shows the marking such as would be used with a blue pencil when Ben Day work is ordered from an engraver. Ben Day work has been used on a great many illustrations in t…

There are a great many problems in graphic work which puzzle the person getting up a chart if there are three different variables to deal with. The problem, as ordinarily found, involves two different independent variables, and a dependent variable depending upon each of the two independent variables. Isometric drawings like Fig. 235, or solid models such as are seen in Fig. 236 and Fig. 237…

It can be seen, for instance, that if a definite weight and length of steel plate Vs inch thick is assumed, the width is absolutely fixed. To obtain a curve like that seen for 5 pounds in Fig. 234, it is necessary only to assume a weight of 5 pounds, then choose separate lengths one by one, and compute the widths which would correspond with the lengths selected to give a weight of 5 pounds. …

The information from such a chart as seen in Fig. 234 may be read from any portion of the chart, even though the intersection of the length and width lines for the size of the plate under consideration does not fall on one of the curve lines drawn. It can be seen for the example stated in the lower left-hand corner of the chart that the intersection of the vertical and horizontal lines of the …

There are many classes of data which, when plotted on ordinary squared co-ordinate paper, involve plotting many points to produce curves like those seen in Fig. 234, but for which the same data shown on paper with logarithmic ruling would give straight lines. When the curve lines are straight lines, it is necessary to plot only two points for each cvu've and then draw a line connecting th…

Peddle, entitled "The Construction of Graphical Charts", published by the McGraw-Hill Book Company of New York City. The use of isometric paper for drawing charts representing three dimensions was mentioned for Fig. 167. In Fig. 235 we have another application of this same isometric ruling. Instead of "showing the whole sheet of isometrically ruled paper as a background. Fig. 235 shows …

The dependent variable is made the vertical scale here, just as in most charts where there is only one independent variable instead of two. The use of the isometric ruling is not as common as it would be if it were more widelv realized how easily charts may be prepared to give the effect of solid models without the great labor which a solid model necessarily involves. Fig. 236 shows another m…

Fig. 237 shows a solid model of the type which may be considered the acme of graphic work when there are two independent variables. A model of this kind is ordinarily made of plaster of Paris, as that is a material easily handled and capable of being made into any shape desired. In making such a model the usual procedure would be to rule a flat board with lines at properly spaced intervals for…

When all the wires are in position on the board, a box is made the right size for the base of the finished solid model, and with sides as high as the solid model is to be made. This box serves as a mold into which the wet plaster of Paris is poured. Care must be taken to have the bottom edges of the box fit well on the board so that the liquid plaster of Paris may not leak out. The powdered …

In order to get the shape of the model as seen in Fig. 237, the plaster of Paris is very carefully scraped away with a piece of tin or some other simple tool until the ends of the vertical wires just show through. Before the plaster of Paris is poured in, care should be taken to mark the different sides of the board so that it will be ^KMf ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^T C/' / //ji ■ \ N^Hpk \ ^^^^^^^F …

A model of this kind can be made from plaster of Paris by following the methods described in detail in this chapter known in which portions of the plaster of Paris block the greatest amount must be removed before the wires come in sight. Knowledge of the position of the wires in the block of plaster of Paris permits removing the plaster rapidly without danger of taking off too much. After the…

When the surfaces have been scraped as nearly as possible to the proper shape they maj^ be smoothed by rubbing with fine sandpaper. The external flat faces of the model may also be sandpapered advantageously to remove any marks which niay remain from the surface of the box used as a mold. Lines such as are seen in Fig. 237 can be ruled on the surface and the different scales can be lettered …

Too many of the statements, however, tell only a portion of the whole truth, and that portion is, of course, assumed to be the portion which the speaker most desires to have put forward. It is not ordinarily feasible in a speech to give all the facts over a series of years so that the hearer may draw any conclusions for himself. The whole system is weak in that the audience are forced to depen…

Concise statements in conjunction with the charts should, of course, be used, somewhat as the main titles are placed under the illustrations of this book. Slides showing snappy questions could be thrown on the screen rapidly, and the succeeding slides could then answer the questions. Recent public improvements, bridges, etc., could be illustrated by maps and actual photographs. Pictures of fi…

The power for the lantern would be obtained in the ordinary manner from tanks of oxygen and hydrogen carried in the car. A car containing the lantern equipment would be entirely self-contained and no electric wires or other attachments would be necessary. The lantern car would be stopped the proper distance away from the lantern screen on the other car, and the slides could be shown on the sc…

When many sets of lantern slides are made from the same original charts there is very little additional expense, and the number of people who may get the benefit of the carefully prepared slides is tremendously increased. In every city there are many young lawyers or business men who would be willing to make a speech to accompany the slides if they could depend upon the slides for their main …

It need not be thought that lantern talks such as are suggested need be devoid of all those spectacular climaxes which are so common with a campaign orator. Whenever it is desired to raise some enthusiasm, a photograph of a candidate could be thrown on the screen and a cheer would be sure to follow. There is an almost unlimited field for the exercise of ingenuity in the preparing of campaign …

Though the projecting lantern is now used almost universally in presenting election returns in large cities, thus far the lantern slides give only very brief scrawled statements that certain cities or certain districts have gone for some particular candidate with some estimated plurality. A person coming out into the street after an evening at the theater has no way of knowing the import of …

A person accustomed to coloring lantern slides could then immediately color in one of the map slides according to some key, so the colors red, green, yellow, etc., on different areas would show that certain candidates were ahead in those States or districts. For municipal elections, the wards and different divisions of the city could be colored in exactly the same manner as suggested for the S…

of all the States or districts, so that the totals of different candidates might be easily compared. Thus, in a presidential election, the counting of the number of States for each candidate does not by any means give the whole story. The important thing is the number of electoral votes, and these would be best represented by the bar summary which would take into account the number of electora…

Slides with colored maps and colored bars would be used as fillers, to be kept on the screen continuously whenever there were no telegraphic reports to be projected on the screen in written words. It would probably be found desirable, in many cases, to show telegraphic reports in such manner that a map would be thrown on the screen between each two telegraphic reports, and also held on the scre…

Fig. 238. Statistical Exhibits in the Municipal Parade by the Employees of the City of New York, May 17, 1913 Many very large charts, curves and other statistical displays were mounted on wagons in such manner that interpretation was possible from either side of the street. The Health Department, in particular, made excellent use of graphic methods, showing in most convincing manner how the de…

A chart with its title should be considered a unit, so that anyone wishing to make an abstract of the article in which the chart appears could safely transfer the chart and its title for use elsewhere. In the preparation of this book it has been found that a number of the charts used have been copied from one magazine to another, and that the titles under the charts have suffered much in the …

To avoid the possibility of error, the editor may use only the most brief title under the illustration, and then trust to the chart being fully described in the context which goes with it. In such a case, the reader who may happen to be especially interested in the chart is forced to plow through a great quantity of context to find the particular paragraph which may happen to explain the cha…

In thirty years, and Its per capita consumption of Mquora Is tiow $1.48 as compared with Missouri's $24 a yearj Is the mes- Ba^ sent to Tennessee to-day by John S. Dawson, Attorney General. Tennessee iida a prohibition fitrht on its hands this Fall. " The test of value of prohibition I- tv- Re Bureau^ day dei as Btrlc p.lm up downwdlrectlj Admii present nary asalr D*' few words…

Though these particular symbols are not fitted for use in chart drawing, they may give a suggestion of the possibilities which exist for abbreviating into symbol form certain remarks or instructions, which it may be frequently convenient to place on the face of a chart as a guide to prevent misinterpretation by the reader. If the symbols for chart work are not too numerous, they would very so…

There is a possibility of making a simple chart on such a large scale that the mere size of the chart adds to its complexity by causing the reader to glance from one side of the chart to the other Fig. 239. A Clear and Accurate Title is of Great Importance The clipping above, taken from the front page of a very prominent newspaper, shows an absurd title. If a thing is reduced 100 per cent, i…

in trying to get a condensed visualization of the chart. There are relatively few curve charts which cannot be presented for report purposes on paper 8j^ by 11 inches, the commonest size used for a typewriter. Though the placing of a chart on paper of typewriter size requires more care than is necessary if a very large sheet of paper is used, the resulting chart is frequently more easy to inter…

many magazine articles and transactions of scientific societies contain charts which are reproduced direct from finely ruled co-ordinate paper and show all of the lines of the co-ordinate paper in the finished illustration. Co-ordinate ruling does not appear prominently on most original charts because the ruling is usually printed in some color of ink distinct from the curve itself. When, howe…

^ s ^ z '^ Courtesy of "Motor" Fig. 241. Comparison of American Automobiles for Four Years, in Cylinder Bore, Valve Arrangement, and Ignition System There is no necessity for plotting curves in the vertical position shown here for it is only confusing to the reader. These curves cannot be read conveniently even by turning the book to read from the left because some of the type would then…

■^<3> ^&» , _>> ^ J^ 19IO 1 1 1910 II ■|2 '13 1910 "1! 12 '13 Cylinder Bore Valve Arrangement Ignition Systems Fig. 242. Comparison of American Automobiles for Four Years, in Cylinder Bore, Valve Arrangement, and Ignition System The standard arrangement of the curves on this chart permits easy reading. Notice that curves are perfectly feasible as a method of presentation even thoug…

The horizontal bars here are so numerous and are placed so close together that the charts have practically the general form of curves drawn vertically instead of horizontally. It would seem just as well to represent the data by real curves drawn with the standard horizontal arrangement When curves become as widely understood as the bar method of presentation, it will be found that curves can be…

/ 28-] ^ -. ..; ,. -- New York Times Annalist Fig. 244. Average per Capita in the United States of Total Savings-bank Deposits At first glance the impression is that Americans are growing rich very rapidly. Yet total deposits per capita have not doubled in the sixteen years shown. If the bottom line of the chart were at the zero of the vertical scale, an entirely different impressi…

Usually, of course, the zero line is at the bottom of the chart unless there are negative quantities so that the curve crosses over the zero line and extends below it. In all cases the zero line can be made a heavy line. If the curve should extend below the zero line the width of the zero line should be ' so great that the reader will be certain to interpret the chart from the zero line rathe…

Average per Capita of Total Savings-bank Deposits in the United States Whenever possible a chart containing curves should be so drawn that the zero of the vertical scale appears in the chart. If the zero line is not shown on the chart, that fact should be indicated by a wavy line at the bottom warning the reader that interpretation must be made from the vertical scale and not by visual mea…

somewhat greater amount of photographic reduction had been used in making the hne engraving or if the proportions between the horizontal- and vertical-scale distances had been changed somewhat. There is really no necessity for using the wavy line for the bottom of Fig. 245 since the chart would have been better made with the zero line showing the bottom. Fig. 245 will serve, however, as an exa…

The failure to show the zero line at the bottom of a chart is so common a fault, found in nearly all publications, that some typical examples are shown here in the hope that a bad practice may be somewhat reduced. Fig. 247 gives the data of Fig. 246 redrawn so that the zero line is shown at the bottom of the chart. It is believed that this illustration will prove conclusively how great an err…

Comparison of Death Rates in the United States, Showing Reduction in Death Rate for Tuberculosis and Increase in Death Rate for Degenerative Diseases This illustration is' identical with Fig. 246 except that here a wavy line is used at the base showing that the bottom of the chart is not at the zero of the vertical scale. It is always desu-able to have the bottom line at zero. If that is not p…

ting curves is to take one set of data and plot those data in several different ways, noticing the changes which the different scales selected give in the proportions of the chart. Just as the written or spoken English language may be used to make gross exaggerations, so charts and especially curves may convey exaggerations unless the person preparing the charts uses as much care as he would …

As a report to stockholders is intended to be as optimistic as possible within the limits of truthfulness, there can scarcely be any criticism that the chart was so made that the growth in business was shown on the long direction of the page instead of on the short dimension of the page. The chart in Fig. 249 is simple to understand, and probably very few stockholders would have any difficulty…

This statement may lead to an erroneous conclusion on the part of the reader, for he may feel that the difference in height between the bar marked 1911 and that for 1912 shows the number of telephones installed during 1912, when, in reality, it shows the number of telephones installed during 1911, since the bars represent the number of 'phones installed to the first of January of each year. …

1876 1878 1880 1882 1864 1886 1688 1890 )892 I 94 1896 1898 1900 1902 1904 1906 1908 1910 1912 JANUARY 1st OF EACHYEAR. 6,700.000 6,600,000 6,600,000 6,400.000 6,300,000 6,200,000 6,100,000 6,000,000 5.900.000 6,800,000 5,700,000 6,600,000 6,600,000 6,400,000 6,300,000 6,200,000 5,100,000 6,000,000 4,900,000 4,800,000 4,700.000 4,600,000 4,600.000 4.400.000 4,300,000 4,2…

6,700,000 6,600,000 6,600,000 6,400,000 6,300,000 6,200,000 6,100,000 6,000,000 6,900,000 6,800,000 6,700,000 6,600,000 6,600,000 6,400,000 6,300,000 6,200,000 6,100,000 6,000,000 4,900,000 4,800,000 4,700,000 4,600,000 4,500,000 4,400,000 4,300,000 4,200,000 4,100,000 4,000,000 3,900,000 3,800,000 3,700,000 3,600,000 3,600,000 3,400,000 3,300,000 3,200,000 3,10…

6,700,000 6,600,000 6,500,000 6,400,000 6,300,000 6,200,000 6,100,000 6,000,000 5,900,000 6,800,000 5,700,000 6,600,000 5,600,000 5,400,000 5,300,000 5,200,000 5,100,000 6,000,000 4,300,000 4,800,000 4,700,000 4,600,000 4,500,000 4,400,000 4,300,000 4,200,000 4,100,000 4,000,000 3,900,000 3,800,000 3,700,000 3,600,000 3,600,000 3,400,000 3,300,000 3,200,000 3,10…

With Fig. 249 as it is, the 1908 bar shows a great increase over 1907 and the reader is quite justified in wondering how it happened that a greatly increased number of telephones were installed during a panic year. From the chart as shown the reader is not likely to realize that 1908 is getting credit for the telephones installed during 1907, which happened to be a very prosperous business ye…

For Fig. 251 an assumption was made that the chart would be printed on exactly the same size page as was used for Fig. 249. The scales for Fig. 250 were, however, arranged in the other direction on the page and the co-ordinate ruling was made so that some space would be allowed for extension of the curve in future years. As seen from Fig. 251 the growth in the telephone business does not appe…

The heavy black type with much greater spread horizontally than vertically tends to overshadow the curve itself and causes for the curve a more distinctly horizontal impression than would otherwise be obtained. A person reading charts must take great care that he does not give too much weight to the actual appearance of the curve on the page, instead of basing his conclusions on the percentag…

Nevertheless, a few examples of optical illusions are shown here so that the reader may have some idea of those peculiar things which may enter in to cause strange impressions if charts do not receive some degree of preliminary care and final inspection. Though many of the effects seen in Fig. 252, Fig. 253, Fig. 254, Fig. 255, and Fig. 256 are not likely to appear in ordinary chart work, th…

Fig. 256 shows some of the difficulties which may be encountered if an attempt is made to present data by comparing the relative heights of pictures of the human form. courtesy or the Grolier society Therc arc fcw pcoplc who will beheve until Fig. 254. An Optical lUu- ^^ ^^^^ measurements that the figure The white square appears larger of the girl lU Fig. 256 IS really of greater than the b…

pictures. Before charts are sent to an engraver to have plates made for printing it is wise to have each chart run the gauntlet of a series of questions, so that the time of the person doing the checking may be saved and also that the points more frequently overlooked may be thoroughly considered in each case. Below are given a series of questions which may be found convenient to anyone h…

The sides of the columns are really straight and parallel the one who drew it. In every editorial office the fact is recognized that one proof-reader will find important errors that were overlooked by another reader equally expert. Further, a mind much occupied with an idea may often fail to see important gaps in its statement, verbal or graphic, until perhaps they are noted by someone l…

When the chart is reduced in size will the proportions be those best suited to the space in which it must be printed? 5. Are the proportions such that there will be sufficient space for the title of the chart when the chart has been reduced to final printing size? ,, . 6. Are all scales in place? 7. Have the scales been selected and placed in the best possible manner? 8. Are the points acc…

Does lettering appear large enough and black enough when seen under a reducing glass in the size which will be used for printing? 17. Is all the lettering placed on the chart in the proper directions for reading? 18. Is cross-hatching well made with lines evenly spaced? 19. Can Ben Day work be used advantageously instead of crosshatching? 20. Do the Ben Day shadings selected have sufficient …

Many charts are being put out to-day from which it would seem that the person making them had tried deliberately to get up some method as different as possible from any which had ever been used previously. Anyone of us would be thought of as a freak instead of as a genius, if he tried to invent his own constructions for the English language and to place words in some order never before seen,…

The general arrangement of a chart should proceed from left to right. 3. Figures for the horizontal scale should always be placed at the bottom of a chart. If needed, a scale may be placed at the top also. 4. Figures for the vertical scale should always be placed at the left of a chart. If needed, a scale may be placed at the right also. 5. Whenever possible, include in the chart the numeric…

Separate columns of figures, with each column relating to a different date, should be arranged to show the column for the earliest date at the left. 10. When charts are colored, the color green should be used to indicate features which are desirable or which are commended, and red for features which are undesirable or criticized adversely. 11. For most charts, and for all curves, the indepen…

If the zero line of the vertical scale cannot be shown at the bottom of a curve chart, the bottom line should be a slightly wavy line indicating that the field has been broken off and does not reach to zero. 16. When curves are drawn on logarithmically ruled paper, the bottom line and the top line of the chart should each be at some power of ten on the vertical scale. 17. When the scale of …

When curves are to be printed, do not show any more coordinate lines than necessary for the data and to guide the eye. Lines l^:;i^-inch apart are sufficient to guide the eye. A FEW CAUTIONS 363 21. Make curves with much broader lines than the co-ordinate ruhng so that the curves may be clearly distinguished from the background. 22. Whenever possible have a vertical line of the co-ordinate ru…

One member from each society will be on this committee. It is hoped that the committee will be able to recommend a small number of brief and simple rules which may be used as a sort of grammar by persons who have graphic presentations to prepare and to interpret. Reports from this joint committee should be watched for so that any rules which may be agreed upon may be put into effect as soon …

When graphic methods are more widely used for portraying quantitative facts, there will be a tremendous gain to accuracy of thought as well as a great saving of that most valuable thing in the world -- time. THE END Abbreviations for chart work, 345, 346 Accidents, as affected by daylight, 140 in industrial plants, 144, 145 on railroads of United States, 134, 135 Accountants, viewpoint of…

of a curve, 131 Annalist, the, see Neiv York Times Annalist Annual reports, corporation, 307 Apples, price curves of, 127, 128, 129 Arithmetically ruled co-ordinate paper, 132 Atlas of the U. S. Census, see Statistical Atlas Atomizer for spraying ink, 57 Authorization for curve records, 284 Automobile exports of United States, 41, 43 factory records, 263 factory schedule curves, 150 sa…

cards, 259, 261 curve cards, 291, 296 machines, 261, 296 Boards for pin records of costs, 191, 192 Bonus earned chart, 52, 54 Boston Elevated Railroad, 4 Boston Globe, 212 Boston Health Department Report, 30, 109 Bowley, Arthur L., ii, 98 Breaks in drawings, 190 Bridges, drawing, upon photographs, 209 Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen, 103 Building construction in United States, 120, B…

Chicago pin map for population, 246 Chicago telephone rates, 126 Choice of scales, 352 Cincinnati, homes of factory workers, 214 Circle and sectors, 5 Circles compared, 36, 37 Clamps for hanging maps, 232 Cleveland Plain Dealer, 92 Cloak and suit industry in New York, 166 Coals, comparative value of, 88 Coloring maps, 209 Color-printing, 5, 331 Colors for chart work, 57 Columns of fig…

executives, 28D financial reports, 307 record department, 292 Correlation, 129, 199 definition of, 199 Corrugated straw-board for map pins, 191 Cost analysis by pin boards, 191, 192 of handling freight, 184, 188, 192 Cotton goods, production and export, 74, Cotton production, 22 production and export of United States, Country Gentlevian, 213, 215, 232 Cows, individual record curves for…

included in a chart, 24, 25, 26 Dates, position of, in curve charts, 72 Davenport, C. B., ii, 164, 165 Davis, Pierpont V., ii Day & Zimmermann, 296, 305, 306 Death rates in United States, 174, 351 Decreases shown graphically, 30 Degenerative diseases, 351 Department of Agriculture Field Service, Dependent variable, definition, 84 Depressions, financial, 104 Dimension lines, 5, 148 Dire…

Election returns, methods of giving, 341 Engineering Magazine, 12, 14, 17, 18, 116, 125, 246 Engineering News, 87 Engineering Record, 79, 119, 209, 210 Equitable Life Assurance Co., 174, 175 Errors in comparison, 20 Ewerbeck, Dr., 225 Exaggeration due to scales used, 353 Examination marks, charting, 205, 206 Executive control curves, 254, 288 Executives of corporations, 289 Exhibition …

Gasoline costs for motor trucks, 198 GRAPHIC METHODS Gasoline-electric generator advertisement, Gear teeth, strength of, 334 General Electric Revietv, 78, 239 General methods, 321 Geography books, 22 Gifford, Walter S., 179, 240 Gilbreth, Frank B., 50 Good Housekeeping, 21 Grammar for graphic work, 361 Graphic presentation, rules for, 362 Graphical charts, construction of, 335 Green i…

Illinois Central Railroad, 310 Illusions, optical, 358, 359 Imports and exports of United States, 37 Incandescent-lamp tests, 337 Income curves, 197 Income of technical graduates, 204 Increases shown graphically, 30 Independent, the, 21, 38 Independent variable, definition, 84 Index numbers, 100 Indianapolis Department of Health, 114 Indianapolis smoke deposits, 245 Industrial depressi…

talks in political campaigns, 340 Legend for charts, 360 , Lenses, camera, 330 cylindrical, 330 "Less than" basis for frequency curves, 179 Lettering on charts, 26, 82 Letters of appeal for money, 250 gummed, 46 , • Lighter operation, chart for, 56 Line cuts from pin maps, 234 made from green ink, 330, 331 Line thickness in reduced drawings, 242 Lines connecting different bars, 31 Loa…

11, 198 Mazda lamps, 337 McAbee, WiUiam D., 245 McGraw-Hill Book Co., 335 Mechanical shading, 331, 332 Merchant tonnage of United States, 112, Methods, general, 321 Metropolitan Sewage Commission, 20, 85 Milk-analysis curves, 114 Milk-production curves, 278, 279 Misleading figures, 326 Mode, 165, 170 Models, card-board, 336 solid, 336 "More than", basis for frequency curves, Morgan,…

Order of Railroad Conductors, 103 Orders, routing, 19 Organization charts, 14, 15 Orrok, George A., 201 , Panics, financial, 104 Parades, charts shown in, 342, 343 municipal, 343 Paraffin crayons, 57 Paris, height of buildings in, 220 Paris, plaster of, 336 Passengers carried on railways, 39 Passenger service on Union Pacific, 312 Payroll curves, 260 record curves, 276 Peaked-top cur…

Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad, 81, 82 Plant, Thomas G. & Co., advertisement, 233 Plaster of Paris, 336 Plates, weight of steel, 333 Pneumonia, deaths from, at different ages, 172, 173 Polar co-ordinates for curves, 80 Political campaigns, charts in, 338 Popular Science Monthly, 164, 165 Population curves, 130 density maps, 221 GRAPHIC METHODS Portland, Oregon, 208 Power development …

needless, 285 Rectangular co-ordinates, 132 Reduction of earnings, 329, 330 Reducing glass, use of, 241, 329 Reduction in size of drawings, 241 Reflecting lantern for curves, 303 Reflectoscope for curves, 304 Reports of corporations, 307 Returns, election, 341 Revenues of railroads of United States, 257 Review of Reviews, 46, 47, 229, 231 Rittenhouse, Elmer, 175, 351, 352 Road signs, J…

mechanical, 331, 332 Sheffield Scientific School, 111 Shipping of various countries, 24 Ships, length of, 49, 51 Shot-gun diagrams, 201 Significant figures, 326 Simple comparisons, 20 involving time, 36 Slide rule, use of, 326, 328 Slope of curves, 130, 131 Smoke deposits, measuring, 245 Smooth curves, 118, 119, 201, 357 Smoothing curves, 98 Solid models, 336 Soot deposits, measuring…

324, 325 Tabulating machines, 320, 321, 322, 323, machines for cards, 323 Tacks, celluloid-covered, for maps, 247, map, 225, 247, 248 Tarr and McMurray's new geographies, Taylor, Graham Romeyn, 214, 221 Telephone load curves, 108 rates, 126 service curves, 179 service in Wisconsin, 178 Telephones in United States, pin map, number used in United States, 354 Temperature curves, 117, 118…

Vacation chart, 53 Variables for curves, 84 Variables, two independent, 333 Velocity of water in streams, 87 Vertical arrangement of curves, 347, 349 bar charts, 354 bars, 46, 47 for components, 138 Wage charts, 180, 181, 182 comparison on railroads, 49 Wall board, 232 charts, 306 exhibits, 358 maps, 225, 229 Wall Street Journal, 308 Warne, Frank J., 103 Water power in United State…